Table of Contents

Chapter 1. Mixed Methods Research in Ethnography, Qualitative and Quantitative

Ethnography in Earlier Times

Al Biruni

Bernadino de Sahagun (1499-1590)

Applied Ethnographic Field Work, Cultural Patterns, and Research Methods

Applied Field Research: Many Disciplines, Many Players

The Different Histories of Quantitative and Qualitative Research in Applied Field Research and Academic Research

Disillusionment with Quantitative Surveys

The New Interest in "Mixed Methods" in the Social Sciences

Chapter 2. Mixed Methods in 19^th Century Ethnography

J. Sjogren, Finnish Linguist-Ethnographer

Mathias A. Castren

Other 19^th Century Finnish Ethnographer-Linguists

Vladimir Bogoraz, Russian Ethnographer/Linguist/Revolutionary

Franz Boas: Promoter of Mixed Methods in North America

Chapter 3. The Developing Discourse of Mixed Method Research

The QUAL versus QUAN Paradigm Debates

Many Problems in the Current Mixed Methods "Paradigm Concepts"

How Did Qualitative Data-Gathering Gain Acceptance in Quantitative-Dominated Research Areas?

A New Wave of Mixed Methods

QUAN+qual, QUAL à quan; Let’s Get on with the Fun

More Complex, Multiple Methods Mixtures (MMM)

QUAL+quan and QUAL à quan designs are very common

The Traditions of Publishing Make a Big Difference for Mixing of Methods

Summary and Conclusions

Chapter 4. Culture and Personality Studies: Plenty of Mixed Methods

Life in a Mexican Village; A Study by Oscar Lewis and Associates

Personality Formation among the Navaho People

Acculturation and Culture/Personality Studies

The "Newer" Culture and Personality Studies

Acculturation, Self-Identification and Personality Adjustment in an Inuit Village

Analysis of the Data

Farmers and Herdsmen in East Africa: Effects of Ecological Factors on Values, Attitudes, and Psychological Characteristics

Quantitative Scale from "Full-Scale Farming to Full-Scale Herding"

Discussion and Conclusions

Chapter 5. Large Multi-Year, Multi-Site, Multi-Disciplinary Research Projects

The Hawthorne Study: Mixed Methods in an Early Applied Project

Yankee City Series: Volume IV. "The Strike: A Social Analysis"

The Big Strike

The Great Mix of Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative

The Ethnic Groups in Yankee City

"Yankee City" in Historical Perspective: Criticisms and Credits

"Public Health as a Career in Medicine:" Another Large-Scale Study

Phase Two

Summary and Conclusions

Chapter 6. Ecosystems Theory, Adaptation, and New Directions in Research

An Early Applied Study of Up-grading Navaho Economy and Health

Massive Environmental Change: Ecosystem Effects of a Dam Project

Commentary

Pigs for the Ancestors: A Focus on Ritual as Ecological Regulator

Quantitative Data

Qualitative Data: Ethnography of Ritual

Discussion and Criticism Sparked by Pigs for the Ancestors

Structural Change in Northern Thai Rice Villages

Sarmela’s English Language Summary

Focus on Agricultural Adaptations in Rural Mexico

Discussion and Conclusions

Chapter 7. Medical Anthropology and Mixed Methods Research

Another Epidemic: Diphtheria Immunization in Thailand

Sorcery and Medicine in the Philippines

The Sociology of an Indian Hospital Ward

The Complex Varieties of Academic and Applied Medical Anthropology

Biological and Cultural Adaptations: The Ecological Framework

Anthropology and Mental Health: Psychosis in East Africa

Long-Term Multidisciplinary Research in Selected Study Populations

Multiple Research Methods in Complex Ethnography: West Africa

An Unusual Category: Combining Ethnography and Quantitative Experiment

Intervention: Development and Testing of a Model MCE Program

Conclusion

Chapter 8. QUAL+qual and QUAL à qual Studies: Common Practices in Ethnography

Coming of Age in Samoa 1928: Margaret Mead’s Seminal Study

A Famous QUAL+QUALà qual Study: Street Corner Society

Getting Started, Learning Field Research

Components of the Research Methods

"Doc," the Most Famous "Key Informant" in Field Research Literature

Sub-Project: Mapping the Social Interactions at the Club

Other Examples of Mixed Methods in QUAL Research. Mixed Methods in Linguistic Research

QUALà qual Triangulation

James P. Spradley: "Grand Tour Interviews" and Other Special Methods

Extensive Participation: Sometimes It Is A "Supplemental Method"

Concluding Comments

Chapter 9. The Development of Quantitative Methods in Ethnographic Research

British Ethnographers Started Doing Surveys Early in the 20^th Century

An "Experiment" with Survey Research Methods in Africa

More Specialized Survey Research "Experiments"

Small-Scale Surveys: Other Variations on the Survey Model(s)

A Different Kind of Mixed Method Research: Cultural Analysis of P-3 Pilot Error

The Study of High Concordance Domains

High versus Low Concordance Domains, and Sampling

"Tight" and "Loose" Societies

Cultural Consensus and Sample Sizes

Cultural Data, Key Informants, and Concordance

Summary and Conclusions

Chapter 10. Food, Diet and Nutrition Studies

Studies of Food Distribution and Dietary Behaviors

Diet and Hunger in Northern Rhodesia

Hunger Months

The Monograph as a Classic Mixed Methods Study of Food and Nutrition

Diet in the Mexican Town of Tepoztlan

A Diet and Nutrition Intervention in South Africa

Nutritional Anthropology: Interdisciplinary Mixed Methods Research

New Achievements in Mixed Methods Diet and Nutrition Studies

The Role of Fruits and Wild Greens in the Shambaa Diet in Tanzania

A Study of Malnutrition in Mali

Research on Vitamin A Deficiency: A Multi-Site, Interdisciplinary Study

Hypothetical Scenarios for Getting Data on Night-Blindness and Other Symptoms

Multi-Year, Multi-Disciplinary Mixed-Methods Study in Central Mexico

Major Finding: "Small is Not Healthy and Happy"

Summary and Conclusions

Chapter 11. The Rise of Community Studies and Ecological Theory: Paradigm Transitions in Finland

Hilma N. Granqvist: Ethnographic Study of a Palestinian Village, 1925-1931

Research in Lapland: Kalle Nickul’s "Discover" of the Skolt Saami Community

Mapping and Other Mixed Methods Research in Suenjel (Kola Peninsula)

Kai Donner: Another "Early Modern" Contributor to Paradigm Change

Community Studies and Ecological Frameworks: Later Trends in the 20^th Century

Adaptive Strategies in the Aland Islands

Community Studies and Ecological Theory in More Recent Finnish Ethnographic Research

Concluding Discussion

Chapter 12. My Explorations in QUAL+quan Research Methodology

Doctoral Dissertation Research in Finnish Lapland

The Upper Mississippi Research Project

Thinking about Research Methods

Thinking about Different Kinds of Societies

The Snowmobile Revolution: Technology and Social Change

Technology and De-localization

Notes on Methodology

Varieties of Delocalization: Food and Diet

Conclusions: More Recent Developments

Chapter 13. Triangulation and Descriptive Expansion: The Uses of Mixed Methods in Ethnographic Research

Exploring "Descriptive Expansion" and Related Purposes of Mixed Methods Designs

Understanding the Concept of Triangulation in Mixed-Methods Research

Broader Definitions of "Triangulation"

Triangulation Studies for Assessing Informant Accuracy

Key Informant Reliability: Another Look at Interview Data

Triangulation and Informant Precision

Comparing Individual In-Depth Interviews and Group Discussion Methods

Triangulation and Mixed-Methods Research in Action

Triangulation with Multiple Quantified Data Gathering Methods: Alaska

Triangulation at the Level of Theory and Data Analysis

Informal Triangulation in Ethnographic Field Research

A Loose Use of the Triangulation Concept in Ethnographic Research

Triangulation in Qualitative Ethnographic Research: A Case of "Investigator Triangulation"

Triangulation is Only One of Several Mixed-Methods Research Categories

Criticisms and Critiques of Triangulation in the Social Sciences

Summary and Conclusions

The Basic Lesson

Chapter 14. Two Decades of Mixed-Methods in South Asia

The Technical Assistance Program: "Building Social Science Capacity for Research on Women’s Health in India"

QUAL-QUAN Mixed-Method Research Tools

Mixing Qualitative and Quantitative Data Was Already Common in South Asia

Developing a Manual for Field Training and Guidelines for Data-Gathering and Analysis

Other Developments in the Mid-1990s

Implementing a Reproductive Health Agenda in India: The Beginning

Reproductive Health in India: New Evidence

Ethnographic Field Research in South Asia

Women’s Perceptions of White Vaginal Discharge: Ethnographic Data from Rural Maharashtra

Evaluation of a Rural Community Health Program

Women’s Work and Child Health

Ethnographic Study of Sex Workers in a Red Light District in Kolkata

Examples of Mixed Methods Research in Bangladesh

The HIV/AIDs Pandemic and Mixed Methods Research

HIV/AIDs and the 21^st Century in South Asia: Our Book of Research Results

Examples of Research on Sexual Behavior during the Technical Assistance Program

Other Noteworthy Studies in this Collection

Men’s Sexual Health Concerns in Mumbai

Women’s Reproductive Health in the Time of AIDs

Continued Research in Issues around Pregnancy, Childbirth, Abortion, and other Reproductive Health Matters

Summary: Mixed Methods Research in South Asia

Chapter 15. Two "Histories" of Mixed Methods Research

Mixed Methods in Ethnographic Research: Early Times

New Pathways to Mixed Methods in the 20^th Century

Multi-Disciplinary and Large-Scale Projects Often Led to Mixed Methods

Inter-Disciplinary Research Teams: A Different Pathway to MM

Mixed Methods in Health Research

Ethnographic Publications are often in Books or Large Printed Reports

Quantitative Research Approaches Have Often Been Inductive

The "Other History" of Mixed Methods and the Recent Spread of Interest in Qualitative Ethnographic Research

New Explorations in Qualitative Research Methods, Especially in Developing Country Programs

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Rapid Rural Appraisal (RR)

Focused Ethnographic Studies (FES)

Other Influences Favoring Qualitative Data Approaches and Mixed Methods

Influences from the Computer Revolution

The Big Picture: Mixed Methods Approaches Are Essential Because Each Individual Method Has Weaknesses. But There Is More: There Are Multiple Sectors of Data in the Real World