Read an Excerpt

Alexander the Great

The History Press

The Early Years

The Macedonian Background

In antiquity Macedonia was a large region of northern Greece, not to be confused with the province of that name in modern Greece, nor with the former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia. The heartland may be thought of as the lowland area formed by river valleys flowing into the Thermaic Gulf (this area now includes the modern city of Thessaloniki, which was not founded until 316 BC, after the death of Alexander). At its greatest extent in the fourth century BC, in the east Macedonia encompassed the three-pronged Chalkidiki peninsula and lands as far as Thrace and the Black Sea, in the south it stretched as far as Thessaly, in the west across the Pindus mountains (the highest mountain range of Greece, which divides northern Greece down the middle) into modern Albania, and in the north it covered much of the former Yugoslav republics and parts of Bulgaria. It was a vast territory, geographically diverse, rich in natural resources, and encompassing various tribal peoples.

Macedonia was a kingdom ruled throughout classical times by a hereditary kingship in which the strongest contender assumed the crown. As such, it was politically distinct from the citystates of Greece in the south, although there had been contacts between Macedonia and Greece for hundreds of years: Greek cities had been founded along the east coast of Macedonia and in Chalkidiki, and recent archaeological excavation has made it clear that the rich culture at least of the aristocratic class in Macedonia was as sophisticated as any found further south. At the beginning of the fourth century a new capital city was founded at Pella (west of modern Thessaloniki), and it was here that the famous Greek tragedian Euripides spent his last years. Remarkable mosaic pavements, villas, the market area, and now the palace have been found (as I write, the finds from the market and palace have not yet been fully published), testifying to a rich, cultivated and sophisticated society completely familiar with the culture of Greece. None the less, there was a deep ethnic rivalry between Greeks and Macedonians, which the political hostilities between them did nothing to dispel.

Alexander's father, Philip II, was the greatest fourth-century king of Macedonia. It was he who united many of the warlike tribes in northern and western Macedonia, exploited the vast natural resources of silver and gold to enrich his treasury, and forged the Macedonian army into a lethal fighting force which his son later used to deadly effect. Although his principal queen (and Alexander's mother) was Olympias, a princess of Epirus (a land lying across the Pindus mountains to the west), Philip made a series of polygamous marriages which reinforced a nexus of guest-friendships and alliances with his neighbours. King Philip's autocratic power and expansionist tendencies were feared by the cities of mainland Greece. We see this clearly through the powerful rhetoric of the Athenian orator Demosthenes, many of whose famous speeches warned the Greeks of the danger posed to their democratic governments by Philip. Their fear was well-founded: Philip decisively defeated the combined forces of the Greeks at the battle of Chaironeia in central Greece in 338 BC, and thereby, to all intents and purposes, became the arbiter of Greek affairs. The young Alexander played a notable part in this battle as his father's lieutenant.

In a move typical of his cunning diplomacy, Philip controlled the fractious Greeks through the so-called League of Corinth, a loose federation of cities in an unequal alliance with him without any basis of goodwill or friendship. At the initial meeting held at Corinth, Philip obtained the agreement of the cities to support him in a war against Persia, and he was elected supreme commander of the allied Greek forces for this expedition. It is not clear what Philip's actual intentions were regarding Persia, but the pretext for the invasion, calculated to appeal to the mainland Greeks, was the liberation of the Greek cities of Asia Minor from the yoke of Persian oppression. There had been a deep-seated hostility between Greece and Persia since the days of the Persian War in the early fifth century BC (immortalised by the historian Herodotus). The impetus for that war had been the revolt of the Greek cities of Asia Minor against Persia, and the idea of the 'freedom of the Greeks' under Persian rule had been a powerful rallying cry ever since. An advance force under the Macedonian generals Parmenio and Attalus reached the Hellespont, but was besieged at Perinthus. The expedition was thrown into further confusion by the assassination of Philip II in 336 BC.

Back in the old royal capital of Aigai (modern Vergina), Philip had been presiding at the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra, Alexander's full sister, to her royal Epirot uncle, when he was killed in the theatre by a youth with a personal grievance (allegedly romantic) against him. Philip was buried at Aigai in accordance with royal tradition. Convincing forensic investigations have shown beyond reasonable doubt that he was the occupant of the main chamber of Tomb II in the royal tumulus of Vergina, discovered in 1979 (the woman's body in the ante-chamber is thought to be that of his last wife, also called Cleopatra). As one of the very few unplundered royal tombs known from ancient Greece, this tomb contained staggering riches of gold, silver and ivory which completely altered our understanding of fourth-century Macedonian culture. (These tombs at Vergina are now open to the public, and the finds are displayed in the Archaeological Museum at Thessaloniki. The theatre in which Philip was probably killed has been uncovered on the hill below the fourth-century palace at Vergina.)

Alexander's Youth

Thus at the age of twenty the young prince Alexander was unexpectedly left fatherless and the kingdom leaderless. Let us review what is known about his early life.

Alexander was born in 356 BC (possibly in the palace at Pella or the one at Aigai/Vergina) as the first son of Philip II and his queen, Olympias. The sources depict Olympias as a formidable woman with a fearsome temper who was attracted to religious rites centring on the cult of Dionysus, the Greek god of wine and much else besides, who was worshipped in an unrestrained manner in Macedonia. Olympias was determined that Alexander should succeed to the throne, and she was fiercely protective of his position at court, especially in relation to the illegitimate children sired by Philip. Alexander appears to have inherited his mother's strength of character, and he remained close to her throughout his life. (She guarded his authority in Macedonia throughout his absence during the expedition, and various sources tell of letters written between them in those years.)

Alexander spent his early years in the company of the 'royal pages', boys from aristocratic families who were brought to court for an education (along with sons of Philip's allies who, by their very presence under his eye, were virtually hostages). Many of these boyhood companions became officers under Alexander later, such as Ptolemy, son of Lagus (the historical source used by Arrian), and Nearchus, who would become the admiral of the fleet.

Tradition maintains that Philip hired as tutor for his young son the famous philosopher Aristotle, a Greek from the city of Stagira in Chalkidiki. Aristotle is said by Plutarch to have taught Alexander at the Sanctuary of the Nymphs at Mieza, where the stone seats and shady walks were still visible in his own day. This sanctuary has been identified to the north-west of the modern town Beroia (not far from the Great Tomb of Lefkadia). Archaeological excavation is incomplete, but the beautiful wooded, well-watered sanctuary appeals to the imagination as a place suited to the school of Aristotle. Much is often made of the philosophical influence that Aristotle had on his young charge. Opinions range from the minimum to the extreme hypothesis that Alexander's expedition was largely a scientific field trip on Aristotle's behalf. The latter view is based on a certainly fictitious letter from Alexander to Aristotle, preserved in some 'vulgate' sources, in which he writes to his tutor about some of the unusual flora and fauna he encountered on his journeys. The truth is probably somewhere in between and will never be known. That Alexander's expedition revealed a host of natural curiosities I do not doubt; that it was the primary focus of it I cannot believe. Later ancient writers, followed by certain modern scholars, have speculated about the influence of philosophical instruction on Alexander's character (the concept of 'a good king', the virtue of moderation, etc.), but without reaching many useful conclusions.

Various charming anecdotes about Alexander's early life are preserved in Plutarch, illuminating Alexander's precocious nature, intelligence and love of learning, bravery, and undoubted destiny to rule. One of the most famous incidents illustrating all the above traits concerns the taming of the horse Bucephalas (the name in Greek means 'Ox-head'). This untamable steed was offered for purchase to King Philip, but as none could control him the king ordered the horse to be led away. After much pleading by Alexander, the boy was allowed to try to tame him, the price of his failure being the forfeit of the price of the horse. Alexander had noticed that the horse appeared to shy at his own shadow, and led him directly into the sun so that it was invisible. He was thereby able to calm the beast, and eventually to mount and ride him when all others had failed. Bucephalas later accompanied his master as far as India, where he died, to Alexander's considerable grief. All the sources record Alexander's devotion to the animal, and he is said to have founded in India a city named Bucephala in its honour.

Alexander grew up as Philip's heir-apparent, serving with him on military expeditions and acting as regent in the king's absence. However, the bad feeling which had grown up between King Philip and Olympias because of his subsequent marriages and illegitimate children culminated in a major quarrel on the occasion of Philip's last marriage to Cleopatra (sometimes called Eurydice), niece of the Macedonian general Attalus. At a drunken gathering Alexander overheard Attalus invoking divine aid for a legitimate successor to be born from this union. Alexander exploded in fury. Philip drew a sword against him but was prevented by drunkenness from attacking his son. After this incident, Alexander and Olympias were exiled from court (she to Epirus, he to Illyria), along with several of Alexander's companions.

After Philip's murder, the exiles returned to Macedonia, and Alexander took steps to establish himself firmly upon his father's throne. Many have suspected that Alexander had been involved behind the scenes in the murder of Philip, mainly on the grounds that he was the primary beneficiary of the crime, but no evidence has been found for this allegation. Alexander killed or had killed his main rivals for the throne, including a royal cousin. Such power struggles were typical of the Macedonian royal succession, in which the strongest claimant gained the prize. Olympias oversaw the murder of Philip's wife Cleopatra and her baby daughter. Prince Alexander was now King Alexander III of Macedonia.

Alexander took over where his father had left off regarding the Greeks and the expedition against Persia. In 335 BC, he convened a meeting of the members of the League of Corinth, and persuaded them to elect him their Supreme Commander in a war of revenge against Persia, exactly as Philip had done two years previously. All the Greeks agreed to this with the exception of Sparta, a slight which rankled. Before he could turn his attention to Persia, Alexander had to secure his position in Europe. In the course of successfully quelling the revolts which had erupted among native tribes in Illyria, Thrace, and on the Danube at the news of Philip's death (covered in detail in Book I of Arrian's Anabasis), Alexander grew into a mature general, his campaigns in this hostile territory marked by the tactical and strategic brilliance which is manifest throughout his career.

In Alexander's absence a revolt broke out in Greece. The city of Thebes in Boiotia in central Greece had been occupied by a Macedonian garrison since the Battle of Chaironeia in 338, and disaffected exiles expelled from Thebes returned by invitation from within, killed the garrison commanders, and incited the populace to rebel against their occupiers, claiming that Alexander had been killed in the north. Alexander took this threat seriously and marched south to Thebes. This action illustrates the basic Macedonian distrust of Greeks which is evident throughout Alexander's reign, and stemmed from the feelings of ethnic rivalry and hostility which had developed during the fourth century. Arrian tells us in the context of the Theban revolt that Alexander had long been suspicious of Athens, and decided to deal with Thebes lest other Greek states, including Sparta, join in a revolutionary movement against him. We will see this atmosphere of mistrust time and time again.

Alexander's siege of Thebes is a famous episode which is related in all our sources, although the details vary. The Macedonian army arrived so quickly that the Thebans were unaware of their approach until they appeared (speed of movement became one of the hallmarks of Alexander's troops). Alexander encamped and bided his time before attacking, but eventually the citadel was assaulted in a series of fierce sallies and the Macedonian troops broke into the inner city. After much savage slaughter Thebes fell, was razed to the ground, its land was apportioned among Alexander's 'allies' in the League of Corinth, and its population enslaved. This disaster shocked the rest of Greece as well as the allies themselves, and many attributed it to divine wrath brought on by the Thebans' support of Persia in the Persian War of the fifth century. There were interesting exceptions to this harsh treatment: priests and priestesses (so that Alexander could claim reverence towards the gods), guestfriends of and local ambassadors for the Macedonian kings (so that Alexander could show that loyalty was rewarded), and the supposed house of the famous poet Pindar (whether the actual house of a poet of the early fifth century really still existed and was identifiable is open to question), and the descendants of Pindar. By this last gesture, Alexander showed his respect for Greek culture and learning. It is pertinent to note that Pindar deserved special treatment also for having written an encomium (eulogy) in honour of Alexander's fifth-century ancestor, King Alexander 'the Philhellene'.

The suppression of the Theban revolt had the desired effect. Other cities sent embassies to the king and punished those of their inhabitants who had supported the Theban cause. In reply to the congratulatory embassy from Athens, Alexander demanded the surrender of several prominent citizens (including the orator Demosthenes) as punishment for the city's wrongs at the battle of Chaironeia and its later attitude towards King Philip and himself. Alexander relented after a second embassy, no doubt less out of kindness to Athens than from a wish to leave a pacified Greece behind him as his thoughts turned towards Asia and the Persian Empire.

Defeat of the Persian Empire

The Persian Background

Leaving aside for the moment Alexander's original intentions in setting out for Asia, it is necessary to examine briefly the political situation he was to face there. The Persian Empire had been defeated by the combined mainland Greek forces in the Persian Wars of the early fifth century BC, but it was not destroyed. The war had crushed any hopes of Persian domination in Greece proper, but the core of the empire in Asia remained intact. The Great King of Persia, whose capital city was Persepolis, ruled over vast territories, roughly covering modern Turkey, Iran, Iraq, the Middle East, Egypt, and, under looser control, Afghanistan and Pakistan as far as India. The lands were divided into administrative units called satrapies, presided over by provincial governors called satraps. It has already been noted that Greek cities had existed on the west coast of Asia Minor for centuries, and that their wish for freedom was one cause of the Persian War. After the war these cities remained under Persian control.

By virtue of her wealth and political influence, Persia had also played a role in the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta in the last three decades of the fifth century. After that, a peace treaty negotiated between the Great King and the Greek states in 386 BC acknowledged that the Greek cities of Asia belonged to the Great King. Despite this internationally recognised treaty, an emotive cry for the 'liberation of the Greeks of Asia Minor' and ultimate revenge against Persia continued to be heard in fourth-century Greece, fuelled by the rhetoric of some of the most powerful orators of the day. This so-called 'King's Peace' of 386 had not, however, included Macedonia among its signatories. Although we have no way of reconstructing what Philip II's intentions were regarding Persia, it is clear that his battle cry (however cynical) of 'freeing the Greeks' fell on the welcoming ears of his Greek 'allies' in the League of Corinth, despite any private fears the mainland Greeks may have had about their Macedonian overlords. This was the situation inherited and exploited by Alexander.

Both Philip and Alexander may have been swayed in their thinking by the state of the Persian Empire in the second half of the fourth century BC. In the first half of that century, a weak Great King had been shaken by a series of satrapal revolts and by the creation of large, powerful, semi-independent satrapies which threatened centralised royal control. Moreover, the Greek cities of Asia were prone to ongoing squabbles between the aristocratic, propertied class, which tended to be pro-Persian in order to preserve the status quo and their vested interests, and the pro-democratic class, which was hostile to Persia and hoped to prosper when freed from her domination. The internal political struggles within some of these cities are well documented. It would be simplistic to claim that the Persian Empire was 'a plum ripe for the plucking' (if indeed that had been the original intention), but one can understand that both Philip and Alexander may have been encouraged to think that their invasions of Asia would not encounter insuperable resistance.

---

Excerpted from Alexander the Great by E.E. Rice. Copyright © 2011 E.E. Rice. Excerpted by permission of The History Press.
All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.
Excerpts are provided by Dial-A-Book Inc. solely for the personal use of visitors to this web site.

---