Table of Contents
Foreword xv
Preface xvii
Contributors xix
1 One-Dimensional Semiconductor Nanostructure Growth with Templates 1
Zhang Zhang and Stephan Senz
1.1 Introduction, 1
1.2 Anodic Aluminum Oxide (AAO) as Templates, 4
1.2.1 Synthesis of Self-Organized AAO Membrane, 4
1.2.2 Synthesis of Polycrystalline Si Nanotubes, 5
1.2.3 AAO as Template for Si Nanowire Epitaxy, 8
1.3 Conclusion and Outlook, 16
Acknowledgments, 16
References, 16
2 Metal–Ligand Systems for Construction of One-Dimensional Nanostructures 19
Rub´en Mas-Ballest´e and F´elix Zamora
2.1 Introduction, 19
2.2 Microstructures Based on 1D Coordination Polymers, 20
2.2.1 Preparation Methods, 20
2.2.2 Structures, 21
2.2.3 Shape and Size Control, 23
2.2.4 Methods for Study of Microstructures, 24
2.2.5 Formation Mechanisms, 25
2.2.6 Properties and Applications, 26
2.3 Bundles and Single Molecules on Surfaces Based on 1D Coordination Polymers, 28
2.3.1 Isolation Methods and Morphological Characterization, 28
2.3.2 Tools for the Studies at the Molecular Level, 34
2.3.3 Properties Studied at Single-Molecule Level, 36
2.4 Conclusion and Outlook, 37
Acknowledgments, 38
References, 38
3 Supercritical Fluid–Liquid–Solid (SFLS) Growth of Semiconductor Nanowires 41
Brian A. Korgel
3.1 Introduction, 41
3.2 The SFLS Growth Mechanism, 42
3.2.1 Supercritical Fluids as a Reaction Medium for VLS-Like Nanowire Growth, 43
3.2.2 SFLS-Grown Nanowires, 44
3.3 Properties and Applications of SFLS-Grown Nanowires, 51
3.3.1 Mechanical Properties, 52
3.3.2 Printed Nanowire Field-Effect Transistors, 57
3.3.3 Silicon-Nanowire-Based Lithium Ion Battery Anodes, 59
3.3.4 Semiconductor Nanowire Fabric, 60
3.3.5 Other Applications, 61
3.4 Conclusion and Outlook, 61
Acknowledgments, 62
References, 62
4 Colloidal Semiconductor Nanowires 65
Zhen Li, Gaoqing (Max) Lu, Qiao Sun, Sean C. Smith, and Zhonghua Zhu
4.1 Introduction, 65
4.2 Theoretical Calculations, 66
4.2.1 Effective Mass Multiband Method (EMMM), 66
4.2.2 Empirical Pseudopotential Method (EPM), 68
4.2.3 Charge Patching Method (CPM), 69
4.3 Synthesis of Colloidal Semiconductor Nanowires, 70
4.3.1 Oriented Attachment, 71
4.3.2 Template Strategy, 76
4.3.3 Solution–Liquid–Solid Growth, 79
4.4 Properties of Colloidal Semiconductor Nanowires, 85
4.4.1 Optical Properties of Semiconductor Nanowires, 85
4.4.2 Electronic Properties of Semiconductor Nanowires, 87
4.4.3 Magnetic Properties of Semiconductor Nanowires, 89
4.5 Applications of Colloidal Semiconductor Nanowires, 90
4.5.1 Semiconductor Nanowires for Energy Conversion, 90
4.5.2 Semiconductor Nanowires in Life Sciences, 92
4.6 Conclusion and Outlook, 94
Acknowledgments, 95
References, 95
5 Core–Shell Effect on Nucleation and Growth of Epitaxial Silicide in Nanowire of Silicon 105
Yi-Chia Chou and King-Ning Tu
5.1 Introduction, 105
5.2 Core–Shell Effects on Materials, 105
5.3 Nucleation and Growth of Silicides in Silicon Nanowires, 106
5.3.1 Nanoscale Silicide Formation by Point Contact Reaction, 107
5.3.2 Supply Limit Reaction in Point Contact Reactions, 107
5.3.3 Repeating Event of Nucleation, 107
5.4 Core–Shell Effect on Nucleation of Nanoscale Silicides, 109
5.4.1 Introduction to Solid-State Nucleation, 109
5.4.2 Stepflow of Si Nanowire Growth at Silicide/Si Interface, 109
5.4.3 Observation of Homogeneous Nucleation in Silicide Epitaxial Growth, 110
5.4.4 Theory of Homogeneous Nucleation and Correlation with Experiments, 111
5.4.5 Homogeneous Nucleation–Supersaturation, 113
5.4.6 Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Nucleation of Nanoscale Silicides, 113
Acknowledgments, 115
References, 115
6 Selected Properties of Graphene and Carbon Nanotubes 119
H. S. S. Ramakrishna Matte, K. S. Subrahmanyam, A. Govindaraj, and C. N. R. Rao
6.1 Introduction, 119
6.2 Structure and Properties of Graphene, 119
6.2.1 Electronic Structure, 119
6.2.2 Raman Spectroscopy, 120
6.2.3 Chemical Doping, 121
6.2.4 Electronic and Magnetic Properties, 122
6.2.5 Molecular Charge Transfer, 127
6.2.6 Decoration with Metal Nanoparticles, 128
6.3 Structure and Properties of Carbon Nanotubes, 130
6.3.1 Structure, 130
6.3.2 Raman Spectroscopy, 132
6.3.3 Electrical Properties, 133
6.3.4 Doping, 134
6.3.5 Molecular Charge Transfer, 136
6.3.6 Decoration with Metal Nanoparticles, 137
6.4 Conclusion and Outlook, 138
References, 138
7 One-Dimensional Semiconductor Nanowires: Synthesis and Raman Scattering 145
Jun Zhang, Jian Wu, and Qihua Xiong
7.1 Introduction, 145
7.2 Synthesis and Growth Mechanism of 1D Semiconductor Nanowires, 146
7.2.1 Nanowire Synthesis, 146
7.2.2 Synthesis of 1D Semiconductor Nanowires, 147
7.2.3 1D Semiconductor Heterostructures, 151
7.3 Raman Scattering in 1D Nanowires, 153
7.3.1 Phonon Confinement Effect, 153
7.3.2 Radial Breathing Modes, 155
7.3.3 Surface Phonon Modes, 156
7.3.4 Antenna Effect, 158
7.3.5 Stimulated Raman Scattering, 160
7.4 Conclusions and Outlook, 161
Acknowledgment, 161
References, 161
8 Optical Properties and Applications of Hematite (α-Fe2O3) Nanostructures 167
Yichuan Ling, Damon A. Wheeler, Jin Zhong Zhang, and Yat Li
8.1 Introduction, 167
8.2 Synthesis of 1D Hematite Nanostructures, 167
8.2.1 Nanowires, 168
8.2.2 Nanotubes, 169
8.2.3 Element-Doped 1D Hematite Structures, 170
8.3 Optical Properties, 171
8.3.1 Electronic Transitions in Hematite, 171
8.3.2 Steady-State Absorption, 172
8.3.3 Photoluminescence, 174
8.4 Charge Carrier Dynamics in Hematite, 175
8.4.1 Background on Time-Resolved Studies of Nanostructures, 175
8.4.2 Carrier Dynamics of Hematite Nanostructures, 175
8.5 Applications, 178
8.5.1 Photocatalysis, 178
8.5.2 Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting, 179
8.5.3 Photovoltaics, 180
8.5.4 Gas Sensors, 181
8.5.5 Conclusion And Outlook, 181
Acknowledgments, 181
References, 181
9 Doping Effect on Novel Optical Properties of Semiconductor Nanowires 185
Bingsuo Zou, Guozhang Dai, and Ruibin Liu
9.1 Introduction, 185
9.2 Results and Discussion, 185
9.2.1 Bound Exciton Condensation in Mn(II)-Doped ZnO Nanowire, 185
9.2.2 Fe(III)-Doped ZnO Nanowire and Visible Emission Cavity Modes, 192
9.2.3 Sn(IV) Periodically Doped CdS Nanowire and Coupled Optical Cavity Modes, 199
9.3 Conclusion and Outlook, 203
Acknowledgment, 203
References, 203
10 Quantum Confinement Phenomena in Bioinspired and Biological Peptide Nanostructures 207
Gil Rosenman and Nadav Amdursky
10.1 Introduction, 207
10.2 Bioinspired Peptide Nanostructures, 208
10.3 Peptide Nanostructured Materials (PNM): Intrinsic Basic Physics, 209
10.4 Experimental Techniques With Peptide Nanotubes (PNTs), 209
10.4.1 PNT Vapor Deposition Method, 209
10.4.2 PNT Patterning, 211
10.5 Quantum Confinement in PNM Structures, 212
10.5.1 Quantum Dot Structure in Peptide Nanotubes and Spheres, 212
10.5.2 Structurally Induced Quantum Dot–to–Quantum Well Transition in Peptide Hydrogels, 219
10.5.3 Quantum Well Structure in Vapor-Deposited Peptide Nanofibers, 221
10.5.4 Thermally Induced Phase Transition in Peptide Quantum Structures, 225
10.5.5 Quantum Confinement in Amyloid Proteins, 229
10.6 Conclusions, 231
Acknowledgment, 233
References, 233
11 One-Dimensional Nanostructures for Energy Harvesting 237
Zhiyong Fan, Johnny C. Ho, and Baoling Huang
11.1 Introduction, 237
11.2 Growth and Fabrication of 1D Nanomaterials, 237
11.2.1 Generic Vapor-Phase Growth, 237
11.2.2 Direct Assembly of 1D Nanomaterials with Template-Based Growth, 238
11.3 1D Nanomaterials for Solar Energy Harvesting, 240
11.3.1 Fundamentals of Nanowire Photovoltaic Devices, 240
11.3.2 Performance Limiting Factors of Nanowire Solar Cells, 241
11.3.3 Investigation of Nanowire Array Properties, 242
11.3.4 Photovoltaic Devices Based on 1D Nanomaterial Arrays, 244
11.4 1D Nanomaterials for Piezoelectric Energy Conversion, 247
11.4.1 Piezoelectric Properties of ZnO Nanowires, 248
11.4.2 ZnO Nanowire Array Nanogenerators, 249
11.5 1D Nanomaterials for Thermoelectric Energy Conversion, 253
11.5.1 Thermoelectric Transport Properties, 254
11.5.2 Enhancement of ZT : From Bulk to Nanoscale, 256
11.5.3 Thermoelectric Nanowires, 257
11.5.4 Characterization of Thermoelectric Behavior of Nanowires, 261
11.6 Summary and Outlook, 263
Acknowledgment, 264
References, 264
12 p –n Junction Silicon Nanowire Arrays For Photovoltaic Applications 271
Jun Luo and Jing Zhu
12.1 Introduction, 271
12.2 Fabrication Of p − n Junction Silicon Nanowire Arrays, 271
12.2.1 Top–Down Approach, 271
12.2.2 Bottom–UP Approach, 273
12.3 Characterization of p − n Junctions in Silicon Nanowire Arrays, 274
12.4 Photovoltaic Application of p − n Junction Silicon Nanowire Arrays, 277
12.4.1 Photovoltaic Devices Based on Axial Junction Nanowire Arrays, 277
12.4.2 Photovoltaic Devices Based on Radial Junction Nanowire Arrays, 282
12.4.3 Photovoltaic Devices Based on Individual Junction Nanowires, 285
12.5 Conclusion and Outlook, 288
Acknowledgment, 291
References, 292
13 One-Dimensional Nanostructured Metal Oxides for Lithium Ion Batteries 295
Huiqiao Li, De Li, and Haoshen Zhou
13.1 Introduction, 295
13.2 Operating Principles of Lithium Ion Batteries, 295
13.3 Advantages of Nanomaterials for Lithium Batteries, 296
13.4 Cathode Materials of 1D Nanostructure, 297
13.4.1 Background, 297
13.4.2 Vanadium-Based Oxides, 298
13.4.3 Manganese-Based Oxides, 303
13.5 Anode Materials of 1D Nanostructure, 307
13.5.1 Background, 307
13.5.2 Titanium Oxides Based on Intercalation Reaction, 307
13.5.3 Metal Oxides Based on Conventional Reaction, 311
13.5.4 Tin- or Silicon-Based Materials, 313
13.6 Challenges and Perspectives of Nanomaterials, 315
13.7 Conclusion, 316
References, 317
14 Carbon Nanotube (CNT)-Based High-Performance Electronic and Optoelectronic Devices 321
Lian-Mao Peng, Zhiyong Zhang, Sheng Wang, and Yan Li
14.1 Introduction, 321
14.2 Controlled Growth Of Single-Walled CNT (SWCNT) Arrays on Substrates, 322
14.2.1 Catalysts for Growth of SWCNT Arrays, 322
14.2.2 Orientation Control of SWCNTs, 323
14.2.3 Position, Density, and Diameter Control of SWCNTs, 323
14.2.4 Bandgap and Property Control of SWCNTs, 323
14.3 Doping-Free Fabrication and Performance of CNT FETs, 324
14.3.1 High-Performance n- and p-Type CNT FETs, 325
14.3.2 Integration of High-κ Materials with CNT FETs, 326
14.3.3 Comparisons between Si- and CNT-Based FETs, 327
14.3.4 Temperature Performance of CNT FETs, 329
14.4 CNT-Based Optoelectronic Devices, 331
14.4.1 CNT-Based p–n Junction and Diode Characteristics, 331
14.4.2 CNT Photodetectors, 331
14.4.3 CNT Light Emitting Diodes, 333
14.5 Outlook, 335
Acknowledgment, 336
References, 336
15 Properties and Devices of Single One-Dimensional Nanostructure: Application of Scanning Probe Microscopy 339
Wei-Guang Xie, Jian-Bin Xu, and Jin An
15.1 Introduction, 339
15.2 Atomic Structures and Density of States, 340
15.2.1 Carbon Nanotubes, 340
15.2.2 Defects, 342
15.2.3 One-Dimensional Nanostructure of Silicon, 343
15.2.4 Other One-Dimensional Nanostructures, 344
15.2.5 Atomic Structure of Carbon Nanotubes by Atomic Force Microscopy, 344
15.3 In situ Device Characterization, 345
15.4 Substrate Effects, 350
15.5 Surface Effects, 351
15.6 Doping, 353
15.7 Summary, 356
Acknowledgments, 356
References, 356
16 More Recent Advances in One-Dimensional Metal Oxide Nanostructures: Optical and Optoelectronic Applications 359
Lei Liao and Xiangfeng Duan
16.1 Introduction, 359
16.2 Synthesis and Physical Properties of 1D Metal Oxide, 359
16.2.1 Top–Down Method, 360
16.2.2 Bottom–Up Approach, 360
16.2.3 Physical Properties of 1D Metal Oxide Nanostructures, 360
16.3 More Recent Advances in Device Application Based on 1D Metal Oxide Nanostructures, 360
16.3.1 Waveguides, 361
16.3.2 LEDs, 363
16.3.3 Lasing, 367
16.3.4 Solar Cells, 371
16.3.5 Photodetectors, 373
16.4 Challenges and Perspectives, 374
Acknowledgments, 375
References, 375
17 Organic One-Dimensional Nanostructures: Construction and Optoelectronic Properties 381
Yong Sheng Zhao and Jiannian Yao
17.1 Introduction, 381
17.2 Construction Strategies, 382
17.2.1 Self-Assembly in Liquid Phase, 382
17.2.2 Template-Induced Growth, 382
17.2.3 Synthesis of Organic 1D Nanocomposites in Liquid Phase, 383
17.2.4 Morphology Control with Molecular Design, 384
17.2.5 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD), 386
17.3 Optoelectronic Properties, 387
17.3.1 Multicolor Emission, 387
17.3.2 Electroluminescence and Field Emission, 387
17.3.3 Optical Waveguides, 388
17.3.4 Lasing, 389
17.3.5 Tunable Emission from Binary Organic Nanowires, 390
17.3.6 Waveguide Modulation, 391
17.3.7 Chemical Vapor Sensors, 392
17.4 Conclusion and Perspectives, 393
Acknowledgment, 393
References, 394
18 Controllable Growth and Assembly of One-Dimensional Structures of Organic Functional Materials for Optoelectronic Applications 397
Lang Jiang, Huanli Dong, and Wenping Hu
18.1 Introduction, 397
18.2 Synthetic Methods for Producing 1D Organic Nanostructures, 398
18.2.1 Vapor Methods, 398
18.2.2 Solution Methods, 399
18.3 Controllable Growth and Assembly of 1D Ordered Nanostructures, 400
18.3.1 Template/Mold-Assisted Methods, 400
18.3.2 Substrate-Induced Methods, 400
18.3.3 External-Force-Assisted Growth, 400
18.4 Optoelectronic Applications of 1D Nanostructures, 405
18.4.1 Organic Photovoltaic Cells, 405
18.4.2 Organic Field-Effect Transistors, 406
18.4.3 Photoswitches and Phototransistors, 408
18.5 Conclusion and Outlook, 408
Acknowledgments, 410
References, 410
19 Type II Antimonide-Based Superlattices: A One-Dimensional Bulk Semiconductor 415
Manijeh Razeghi and Binh-Minh Nguyen
19.1 Introduction, 415
19.2 Material System and Variants of Type II Superlattices, 415
19.2.1 The 6.1 Angstrom Family, 415
19.2.2 Type II InAs/GaSb Superlattices, 416
19.2.3 Variants of Sb-Based Superlattices, 416
19.3 One-Dimensional Physics of Type II Superlattices, 418
19.3.1 Qualitative Description of Type II Superlattices, 418
19.3.2 Numerical Calculation of Type II Superlattice Band Structure, 421
19.3.3 Band Structure Result, 424
19.3.4 M Structure Superlattices, 427
19.4 Type II Superlattices for Infrared Detection and Imaging, 428
19.4.1 Theoretical Modeling and Device Architecture Optimization, 428
19.4.2 Material Growth and Structural Characterization, 428
19.4.3 Device Fabrication, 429
19.4.4 Integrated Measurement System, 429
19.4.5 Focal Plane Arrays and Infrared Imaging, 430
19.5 Summary, 432
Acknowledgments, 432
References, 433
20 Quasi One-Dimensional Metal Oxide Nanostructures for Gas Sensors 435
Andrea Ponzoni, Guido Faglia, and Giorgio Sberveglieri
20.1 Introduction, 435
20.2 Working Principle, 435
20.2.1 Electrical Conduction in Metal Oxides, 435
20.2.2 Adsorption/Desorption Phenomena, 436
20.2.3 Transduction Mechanism, 436
20.2.4 Sensor Response Parameters, 438
20.3 Bundled Nanowire Devices, 438
20.3.1 Integration of Nanowires into Functional Devices, 438
20.3.2 Conductometric Gas Sensors, 439
20.4 Single-Nanowire Devices, 442
20.4.1 Integration of Nanowires into Functional Devices, 442
20.4.2 Role of Electrical Contacts, 442
20.4.3 Conductometric Gas Sensors, 443
20.4.4 Field-Effect Transistor (FET) Devices Based on Single Nanowires, 445
20.5 Electronic Nose, 445
20.5.1 Chemical Sensitization, 446
20.5.2 Gradient Array (KAMINA Platform), 446
20.5.3 Mixed Arrays, 447
20.6 Optical Gas Sensors, 447
20.6.1 Experimental Observations, 448
20.6.2 Working Mechanism, 448
20.7 Conclusions, 450
Acknowledgments, 450
References, 450
21 One-Dimensional Nanostructures in Plasmonics 455
Xuefeng Gu, Teng Qiu, and Paul K. Chu
21.1 Introduction, 455
21.2 1D plasmonic Waveguides, 456
21.2.1 Tradeoff between Light Confinement and Propagation Length, 456
21.2.2 Surface Plasmon Polariton (SPP) Propagation along Nanoparticle Chains, 456
21.2.3 SPP Propagation along Nanowires, 457
21.2.4 Hybrid Waveguiding Nanostructures, 457
21.2.5 Enhanced SPP Coupling between Nanowires and External Devices, 457
21.3 1D Nanostructures in Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering, 459
21.3.1 Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering, 459
21.3.2 Nanowires in Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering, 460
21.3.3 Nanorods in Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering, 461
21.3.4 Nanotubes in Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering, 462
21.4 Plasmonic 1D Nanostructures in Photovoltaics, 464
21.4.1 Solar Cells with 1D Nanostructures as Building Elements, 465
21.4.2 Plasmonic 1D Nanostructures for Improved Photovoltaics, 466
21.5 Conclusion And Outlook, 467
Acknowledgments, 469
References, 469
22 Lateral Metallic Nanostructures for Spintronics 473
Marius V. Costache, Bart J. van Wees, and Sergio O. Valenzuela
22.1 Introduction, 473
22.2 Introduction to Spin Transport in 1D Systems, 474
22.3 Fabrication Techniques For Lateral Spin Devices, 476
22.3.1 Electron Beam Lithography, 476
22.3.2 Multistep Process Using Ion Milling for Clean Interfaces, 476
22.3.3 Shadow Evaporation Technique for Tunnel Barriers, 476
22.4 Examples of Devices Fabricated Using The Shadow Evaporation Technique, 478
Acknowledgments, 481
References, 481
23 One-Dimensional Inorganic Nanostructures for Field Emitters 483
Tianyou Zhai, Xi Wang, Liang Li, Yoshio Bando, and Dmitri Golberg
23.1 Introduction, 483
23.2 Key Factors Affecting Field Emission (FE) Performance of 1D Nanostructures, 484
23.2.1 Morphology Effects, 484
23.2.2 Phase Structure Effects, 490
23.2.3 Temperature Effects, 490
23.2.4 Light Illumination Effects, 491
23.2.5 Gas Exposure Effects, 492
23.2.6 Substrate Effects, 492
23.2.7 Gap Effects, 493
23.2.8 Composition Effects, 493
23.2.9 Hetero/branched Structure Effects, 496
23.3 Conclusion and Outlook, 497
Acknowledgment, 499
References, 499
24 One-Dimensional Field-Effect Transistors 503
Joachim Knoch
24.1 Introduction, 503
24.2 An Introduction to Field-Effect Transistors, 503
24.2.1 Fundamental Properties of Field-Effect Transistors, 503
24.2.2 One-Dimensional Geometry of Nanowires and Nanotubes, 505
24.2.3 Density of States or Quantum Capacitance, 506
24.3 One-Dimensional FETs, 508
24.3.1 Impact of Dimensionality and Dependence on Effective Mass: 1D versus 2D, 508
24.3.2 Scaling to Quantum Capacitance Limit: Intrinsic Device Performance, 508
24.3.3 Extrinsic Device Performance, 510
24.4 Conclusion and Outlook, 512
References, 512
25 Nanowire Field-Effect Transistors for Electrical Interfacing with Cells and Tissue 515
Bozhi Tian
25.1 Introduction, 515
25.1.1 How Nanowire (NW) Sensors Work, 515
25.1.2 Nanoscale Morphology for Cellular Interfacing, 516
25.2 Discussion, 516
25.2.1 Device Fabrication and Basic Characteristics, 516
25.2.2 Advantages of NWFET Sensing and Recording Systems, 517
25.2.3 Extracellular Interfaces of NWFET and Tissue/Cells, 518
25.2.4 Intracellular Interfaces of NWFET and Cells, 524
25.3 Conclusion and Outlook, 526
Acknowledgment, 528
References, 528
Author Biographies 531
Index 551
