Understanding FACTS: Concepts and Technology of Flexible AC Transmission Systems / Edition 1 available in Hardcover
Understanding FACTS: Concepts and Technology of Flexible AC Transmission Systems / Edition 1
- ISBN-10:
- 0780334558
- ISBN-13:
- 9780780334557
- Pub. Date:
- 12/24/1999
- Publisher:
- Wiley
Understanding FACTS: Concepts and Technology of Flexible AC Transmission Systems / Edition 1
Hardcover
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$220.95Overview
Hingorani and Gyugyi present a practical approach to FACTS thatwill enable electrical engineers working in the power industry tounderstand the principles underlying this advanced system.UNDERSTANDING FACTS will also enhance expertise in equipmentspecifications and engineering design, offering an informed view ofthe future of power electronics in AC transmission systems.
This comprehensive reference book provides an in-depth lookat:
* Power semiconductor devices
* Voltage-sourced and current-sourced converters
* Specific FACTS controllers including SVC, STATCOM, TCSC, SSSC,UPFC, IPFC plus voltage regulators, phase shifters, and specialcontrollers with a detailed comparison of their performanceattributes
* Major FACTS applications used in the United States.
UNDERSTANDING FACTS is an authoritative resource that is essentialreading for electrical engineers who want to stay on the cusp ofthe power electronics revolution."
Sponsored by:
IEEE Power Engineering Society.
Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9780780334557 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | Wiley |
| Publication date: | 12/24/1999 |
| Pages: | 464 |
| Product dimensions: | 7.17(w) x 10.20(h) x 1.07(d) |
About the Author
Narain G. Hingorani is credited with originating the concepts ofFACTS and Custom Power. He is a retired vice president ofElectrical Systems at EPRI and provides consulting services thathelp utilities plan and purchase power electronics technology. Dr.Hingorani has published widely on HVDC and ac transmission and iscoauthor of High Voltage Direct Current Power Transmission (GarawayLtd., 1960). Dr. Hingorani is the recipient of the 1985 Uno LammMedal of the IEEE Power Engineering Society for outstandingcontributions to High Voltage Direct Current Technology and the1995 IEEE Lamme Medal for leadership and pioneering contributionsto the transmission and distribution of electric power. He is aFellow of the IEEE and in 1988 he was elected to the NationalAcademy of Engineering.
Laszlo Gyugyi is technical director at Siemens FACTS & PowerQuality Division in Orlando, Florida. His research covers a broadrange of power electronic circuits and systems. In collaborationwith B. R. Pelly, Dr. Gyugyi established the theoreticalfoundations of ac to ac switching converters in Static PowerFrequency Changers (John Wiley & Sons, 1976). Subsequently, hehas focused on the development of new power electronic technologiesfor electric transmission and distribution systems, and haspioneered the converter-based approach for FACTS. Dr. Gyugyi haspublished more than 50 papers in the field and holds 76 U.S.patents. He is the recipient of the 1992 Westinghouse Order ofMerit, the 1994 William E. Newell Power Electronics Award of theIEEE Power Electronics Society, and the first Flexible ACTransmission System (FACTS) Award given by the IEEE PowerEngineering Society in 1999. He is a Fellow of the IEE.
Read an Excerpt
Understanding FACTS
Concepts and Technology of Flexible AC Transmission SystemsBy Narain G. Hingorani Laszlo Gyugyi
John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 0-7803-3455-8Chapter One
FACTS Concept and General System Considerations1.1 TRANSMISSION INTERCONNECTIONS
Most if not all of the world's electric power supply systems are widely interconnected, involving connections inside utilities' own territories which extend to inter-utility interconnections and then to inter-regional and international connections. This is done for economic reasons, to reduce the cost of electricity and to improve reliability of power supply.
1.1.1 Why We Need Transmission Interconnections
We need these interconnections because, apart from delivery, the purpose of the transmission network is to pool power plants and load centers in order to minimize the total power generation capacity and fuel cost. Transmission interconnections enable taking advantage of diversity of loads, availability of sources, and fuel price in order to supply electricity to the loads at minimum cost with a required reliability. In general, if a power delivery system was made up of radial lines from individual local generators without being part of a grid system, many more generation resources would be needed to serve the load with the same reliability, and the cost of electricity would be much higher. With that perspective, transmission is often an alternative to a new generation resource. Less transmission capability means that more generation resources would be required regardless of whether the system is made up of large or small power plants. In fact small distributed generation becomes more economically viable if there is a backbone of a transmission grid. One cannot be really sure about what the optimum balance is between generation and transmission unless the system planners use advanced methods of analysis which integrate transmission planning into an integrated value-based transmission/generation planning scenario. The cost of transmission lines and losses, as well as difficulties encountered in building new transmission lines, would often limit the available transmission capacity. It seems that there are many cases where economic energy or reserve sharing is constrained by transmission capacity, and the situation is not getting any better. In a deregulated electric service environment, an effective electric grid is vital to the competitive environment of reliable electric service.
On the other hand, as power transfers grow, the power system becomes increasingly more complex to operate and the system can become less secure for riding through the major outages. It may lead to large power flows with inadequate control, excessive reactive power in various parts of the system, large dynamic swings between different parts of the system and bottlenecks, and thus the full potential of transmission interconnections cannot be utilized.
The power systems of today, by and large, are mechanically controlled. There is a widespread use of microelectronics, computers and high-speed communications for control and protection of present transmission systems; however, when operating signals are sent to the power circuits, where the final power control action is taken, the switching devices are mechanical and there is little high-speed control. Another problem with mechanical devices is that control cannot be initiated frequently, because these mechanical devices tend to wear out very quickly compared to static devices. In effect, from the point of view of both dynamic and steady-state operation, the system is really uncontrolled. Power system planners, operators, and engineers have learned to live with this limitation by using a variety of ingenious techniques to make the system work effectively, but at a price of providing greater operating margins and redundancies. These represent an asset that can be effectively utilized with prudent use of FACTS technology on a selective, as needed basis.
In recent years, greater demands have been placed on the transmission network, and these demands will continue to increase because of the increasing number of nonutility generators and heightened competition among utilities themselves. Added to this is the problem that it is very difficult to acquire new rights of way. Increased demands on transmission, absence of long-term planning, and the need to provide open access to generating companies and customers, all together have created tendencies toward less security and reduced quality of supply. The FACTS technology is essential to alleviate some but not all of these difficulties by enabling utilities to get the most service from their transmission facilities and enhance grid reliability. It must be stressed, however, that for many of the capacity expansion needs, building of new lines or upgrading current and voltage capability of existing lines and corridors will be necessary.
1.1.2 Opportunities for FACTS
What is most interesting for transmission planners is that FACTS technology opens up new opportunities for controlling power and enhancing the usable capacity of present, as well as new and upgraded, lines. The possibility that current through a line can be controlled at a reasonable cost enables a large potential of increasing the capacity of existing lines with larger conductors, and use of one of the FACTS Controllers to enable corresponding power to flow through such lines under normal and contingency conditions.
These opportunities arise through the ability of FACTS Controllers to control the interrelated parameters that govern the operation of transmission systems including series impedance, shunt impedance, current, voltage, phase angle, and the damping of oscillations at various frequencies below the rated frequency. These constraints cannot be overcome, while maintaining the required system reliability, by mechanical means without lowering the useable transmission capacity. By providing added flexibility, FACTS Controllers can enable a line to carry power closer to its thermal rating. Mechanical switching needs to be supplemented by rapid-response power electronics. It must be emphasized that FACTS is an enabling technology, and not a one-on-one substitute for mechanical switches.
The FACTS technology is not a single high-power Controller, but rather a collection of Controllers, which can be applied individually or in coordination with others to control one or more of the interrelated system parameters mentioned above. A well-chosen FACTS Controller can overcome the specific limitations of a designated transmission line or a corridor. Because all FACTS Controllers represent applications of the same basic technology, their production can eventually take advantage of technologies of scale. Just as the transistor is the basic element for a whole variety of microelectronic chips and circuits, the thyristor or high-power transistor is the basic element for a variety of high-power electronic Controllers.
FACTS technology also lends itself to extending usable transmission limits in a step-by-step manner with incremental investment as and when required. A planner could foresee a progressive scenario of mechanical switching means and enabling FACTS Controllers such that the transmission lines will involve a combination of mechanical and FACTS Controllers to achieve the objective in an appropriate, staged investment scenario.
Some of the Power Electronics Controllers, now folded into the FACTS concept predate the introduction of the FACTS concept by co-author Hingorani to the technical community. Notable among these is the shunt-connected Static VAR Compensator (SVC) for voltage control which was first demonstrated in Nebraska and commercialized by GE in 1974 and by Westinghouse in Minnesota in 1975. The first series-connected Controller, NGH-SSR Damping Scheme, invented by co-author Hingorani, a low power series capacitor impedance control scheme, was demonstrated in California by Siemens in 1984. It showed that with an active Controller there is no limit to series capacitor compensation. Even prior to SVCs, there were two versions of static saturable reactors for limiting overvoltages and also powerful gapless metal oxide arresters for limiting dynamic overvoltages. Research had also been undertaken on solid-state tap changers and phase shifters. However, the unique aspect of FACTS technology is that this umbrella concept revealed the large potential opportunity for power electronics technology to greatly enhance the value of power systems, and thereby unleashed an array of new and advanced ideas to make it a reality. Co-author Gyugyi has been at the forefront of such advanced ideas. FACTS technology has also provided an impetus and excitement perceived by the younger generation of engineers, who will rethink and re-engineer the future power systems throughout the world.
It is also worth pointing out that, in the implementation of FACTS technology, we are dealing with a base technology, proven through HVDC and high-power industrial drives. Nevertheless, as power semiconductor devices continue to improve, particularly the devices with turn-off capability, and as FACTS Controller concepts advance, the cost of FACTS Controllers will continue to decrease. Large-scale use of FACTS technology is an assured scenario.
1.2 FLOW OF POWER IN AN AC SYSTEM
At present, many transmission facilities confront one or more limiting network parameters plus the inability to direct power flow at will.
In ac power systems, given the insignificant electrical storage, the electrical generation and load must balance at all times. To some extent, the electrical system is self-regulating. If generation is less than load, the voltage and frequency drop, and thereby the load, goes down to equal the generation minus the transmission losses. However, there is only a few percent margin for such a self-regulation. If voltage is propped up with reactive power support, then the load will go up, and consequently frequency will keep dropping, and the system will collapse. Alternately, if there is inadequate reactive power, the system can have voltage collapse.
When adequate generation is available, active power flows from the surplus generation areas to the deficit areas, and it flows through all parallel paths available which frequently involves extra high-voltage and medium-voltage lines. Often, long distances are involved with loads and generators along the way. An often cited example is that much of the power scheduled from Ontario Hydro Canada to the North East United States flows via the PJM system over a long loop, because of the presence of a large number of powerful low impedance lines along that loop. There are in fact some major and a large number of minor loop flows and uneven power flows in any power transmission system.
1.2.1 Power Flow in Parallel Paths Consider a very simple case of power flow [Figure 1.1(a)], through two parallel paths (possibly corridors of several lines) from a surplus generation area, shown as an equivalent generator on the left, to a deficit generation area on the right. Without any control, power flow is based on the inverse of the various transmission line impedances. Apart from ownership and contractual issues over which lines carry how much power, it is likely that the lower impedance line may become overloaded and thereby limit the loading on both paths even though the higher impedance path is not fully loaded. There would not be an incentive to upgrade current capacity of the overloaded path, because this would further decrease the impedance and the investment would be self-defeating particularly if the higher impedance path already has enough capacity.
Figure 1.1(b) shows the same two paths, but one of these has HVDC transmission. With HVDC, power flows as ordered by the operator, because with HVDC power electronics converters power is electronically controlled. Also, because power is electronically controlled, the HVDC line can be used to its full thermal capacity if adequate converter capacity is provided. Furthermore, an HVDC line, because of its high-speed control, can also help the parallel ac transmission line to maintain stability. However, HVDC is expensive for general use, and is usually considered when long distances are involved, such as the Pacific DC Intertie on which power flows as ordered by the operator.
As alternative FACTS Controllers, Figures 1.1(c) and 1.1 (d) show one of the transmission lines with different types of series type FACTS Controllers. By means of controlling impedance [Figure 1.1(c)] or phase angle [Figure 1.1(d)], or series injection of appropriate voltage (not shown) a FACTS Controller can control the power flow as required. Maximum power flow can in fact be limited to its rated limit under contingency conditions when this line is expected to carry more power due to the loss of a parallel line.
1.2.2 Power Flow in a Meshed System
To further understand the free flow of power, consider a very simplified case in which generators at two different sites are sending power to a load center through a network consisting of three lines in a meshed connection (Figure 1.2). Suppose the lines AB, BC, and AC have continuous ratings of 1000 MW, 1250 MW, and 2000 MW, respectively, and have emergency ratings of twice those numbers for a sufficient length of time to allow rescheduling of power in case of loss of one of these lines. If one of the generators is generating 2000 MW and the other 1000 MW, a total of 3000 MW would be delivered to the load center. For the impedances shown, the three lines would carry 600, 1600, and 1400 MW, respectively, as shown in Figure 1.2(a). Such a situation would overload line BC (loaded at 1600 MW for its continuous rating of 1250 MW), and therefore generation would have to be decreased at B, and increased at A, in order to meet the load without overloading line BC.
Power, in short, flows in accordance with transmission line series impedances (which are 90% inductive) that bear no direct relationship to transmission ownership, contracts, thermal limits, or transmission losses. If, however, a capacitor whose reactance is - 5 ohms ([omega]) at the synchronous frequency is inserted in one line [Figure 1.2(b)], it reduces the line's impedance from 10 [omega] to 5 [omega], so that power flow through the lines AB, BC, and AC will be 250,1250, and 1750 MW, respectively. It is clear that if the series capacitor is adjustable, then other power-flow levels may be realized in accordance with the ownership, contract, thermal limitations, transmission losses, and a wide range of load and generation schedules. Although this capacitor could be modular and mechanically switched, the number of operations would be severely limited by wear on the mechanical components because the line loads vary continuously with load conditions, generation schedules, and line outages.
Other complications may arise if the series capacitor is mechanically controlled. A series capacitor in a line may lead to subsynchronous resonance (typically at 10-50 Hz for a 60 Hz system). This resonance occurs when one of the mechanical resonance frequencies of the shaft of a multiple-turbine generator unit coincides with 60 Hz minus the electrical resonance frequency of the capacitor with the inductive impedance of the line. If such resonance persists, it will soon damage the shaft. Also while the outage of one line forces other lines to operate at their emergency ratings and carry higher loads, power flow oscillations at low frequency (typically 0.3-3 Hz) may cause generators to lose synchronism, perhaps prompting the system's collapse.
If all or a part of the series capacitor is thyristor-controlled, however, it can be varied as often as required. It can be modulated to rapidly damp any subsynchronous resonance conditions, as well as damp low frequency oscillations in the power flow. This would allow the transmission system to go from one steady-state condition to another without the risk of damage to a generator shaft and also help reduce the risk of system collapse. In other words, a thyristor-controlled series capacitor can greatly enhance the stability of the network. More often than not though, it is practical for part of the series compensation to be mechanically controlled and part thyristor controlled, so as to counter the system constraints at the least cost.
(Continues...)
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Table of Contents
PREFACE xiiiACKNOWLEDGMENTS xvii
CHAPTER 1 FACTS Concept and General System Considerations 1
1.1 Transmission Interconnections 1
1.1.1 Why We Need Transmission Interconnections 1
1.1.2 Opportunities for FACTS 2
1.2 Flow of Power in an AC System 3
1.2.1 Power Flow in Parallel Paths 4
1.2.2 Power Flow in Meshed System 4
1.3 What Limits the Loading Capability? 7
1.4 Power Flow and Dynamic Stability Considerations of a Transmission Interconnection 9
1.5 Relative Importance of Controllable Parameters 12
1.6 Basic Types of FACTS Controllers 13
1.6.1 Relative Importance of Different Types of Controllers 14
1.7 Brief Description and Definitions of FACTS Controllers 16
1.7.1 Shunt Connected Controllers 18
1.7.2 Series Connected Controllers 20
1.7.3 Combined Shunt and Series Connected Controllers 23
1.7.4 Other Controllers 24
1.8 Checklist of Possible Benefits from FACTS Technology 25
1.9 In Perspective: HVDC or FACTS 26
CHAPTER 2 Power Semiconductor Devices 37
2.1 Perspective on Power Devices 37
2.1.1 Types of High-Power Devices 40
2.2 Principal High-Power Device Characteristics and Requirements 41
2.2.1 Voltage and Current Ratings 41
2.2.2 Losses and Speed of Switching 42
2.2.3 Parameter Trade-Off of Devices 44
2.3 Power Device Material 45
2.4 Diode (Pn Junction) 46
2.5 Transistor 48
2.5.1 MOSFET 51
2.6 Thyristor (without Turn-Off Capability) 52
2.7 Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO) 54
2.7.1 Turn-On and Turn-Off Process 56
2.8 MOS Turn-Off Thyristor (MTO) 58
2.9 Emitter Turn-Off Thyristor 60
2.10 Integrated Gate-Commutated Thyristor (GCT and IGCT) 61
2.11 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) 63
2.12 MOS-Controlled Thyristor (MCT) 64
CHAPTER 3 Voltage-Sourced Converters 67
3.1 Basic Concept of Voltage-Sourced Converters 67
3.2 Single-Phase Full-Wave Bridge Converter Operation 69
3.3 Single Phase-Leg Operation 72
3.4 Square-Wave Voltage Harmonics for a Single-Phase Bridge 73
3.5 Three-Phase Full-Wave Bridge Converter 74
3.5.1 Converter Operation 74
3.5.2 Fundamental and Harmonics for a Three-Phase Bridge Converter 77
3.6 Sequence of Valve Conduction Process in Each Phase-Leg 80
3.7 Transformer Connections for 12-Pulse Operation 83
3.8 24- and 48-Pulse Operation 85
3.9 Three-Level Voltage-Sourced Converter 87
3.9.1 Operation of Three-Level Converter 87
3.9.2 Fundamental and Harmonic Voltages for a Three-Level Converter 88
3.9.3 Three-Level Converter with Parallel Legs 91
3.10 Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) Converter 91
3.11 Generalized Technique of Harmonic Elimination and Voltage Control 95
3.12 Converter Rating—General Comments 97
CHAPTER 4 Self- and Line-Commutated Current-Sourced Converters 103
4.1 Basic Concept of Current-Sourced Converters 103
4.2 Three-Phase Full-Wave Diode Rectifier 106
4.3 Thyristor-Based Converter (With Gate Turn-On but Without Gate Turn-Off) 110
4.3.1 Rectifier Operation 110
4.3.2 Inverter Operation 113
4.3.3 Valve Voltage 116
4.3.4 Commutation Failures 118
4.3.5 AC Current Harmonics 120
4.3.6 DC Voltage Harmonics 126
4.4 Current-Sourced Converter with Turn-Off Devices (Current Stiff Converter) 129
4.5 Current-Sourced Versus Voltage-Sourced Converters 132
CHAPTER 5 Static Shunt Compensators: SVC and STATCOM 135
5.1 Objectives of Shunt Compensation 135
5.1.1 Midpoint Voltage Regulation for Line Segmentation 135
5.1.2 End of Line Voltage Support to Prevent Voltage Instability 138
5.1.3 Improvement of Transient Stability 138
5.1.4 Power Oscillation Damping 142
5.1.5 Summary of Compensator Requirements 143
5.2 Methods of Controllable Var Generation 144
5.2.1 Variable Impedance Type Static Var Generators 145
5.2.2 Switching Converter Type Var Generators 164
5.2.3 Hybrid Var Generators: Switching Converter with TSC and TCR 177
5.2.4 Summary of Static Var Generators 178
5.3 Static Var Compensators: SVC and STATCOM 179
5.3.1 The Regulation Slope 183
5.3.2 Transfer Function and Dynamic Performance 184
5.3.3 Transient Stability Enhancement and Power Oscillation Damping 188
5.3.4 Var Reserve (Operating Point) Control 193
5.3.5 Summary of Compensator Control 195
5.4 Comparison Between STATCOM and SVC 197
5.4.1 V-I and V-Q Characteristics 197
5.4.2 Transient Stability 199
5.4.3 Response Time 201
5.4.4 Capability to Exchange Real Power 201
5.4.5 Operation With Unbalanced AC System 202
5.4.6 Loss Versus Var Output Characteristic 204
5.4.7 Physical Size and Installation 204
5.4.8 Merits of Hybrid Compensator 205
5.5 Static Var Systems 205
CHAPTER 6 Static Series Compensators: GCSC, TSSC, TCSC, and SSSC 209
6.1 Objectives of Series Compensation 209
6.1.1 Concept of Series Capacitive Compensation 210
6.1.2 Voltage Stability 211
6.1.3 Improvement of Transient Stability 212
6.1.4 Power Oscillation Damping 213
6.1.5 Subsynchronous Oscillation Damping 214
6.1.6 Summary of Functional Requirements 215
6.1.7 Approaches to Controlled Series Compensation 216
6.2 Variable Impedance Type Series Compensators 216
6.2.1 GTO Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (GCSC) 216
6.2.2 Thyristor-Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC) 223
6.2.3 Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) 225
6.2.4 Subsynchronous Characteristics 236
6.2.5 Basic Operating Control Schemes for GCSC, TSSC, and TCSC 239
6.3 Switching Converter Type Series Compensators 243
6.3.1 The Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) 244
6.3.2 Transmitted Power Versus Transmission Angle Characteristic 245
6.3.3 Control Range and VA Rating 248
6.3.4 Capability to Provide Real Power Compensation 250
6.3.5 Immunity to Subsynchronous Resonance 254
6.3.6 Internal Control 257
6.4 External (System) Control for Series Reactive Compensators 259
6.5 Summary of Characteristics and Features 261
CHAPTER 7 Static Voltage and Phase Angle Regulators: TCVR and TCPAR 267
7.1 Objectives of Voltage and Phase Angle Regulators 267
7.1.1 Voltage and Phase Angle Regulation 269
7.1.2 Power Flow Control by Phase Angle Regulators 270
7.1.3 Real and Reactive Loop Power Flow Control 272
7.1.4 Improvement of Transient Stability with Phase Angle Regulators 274
7.1.5 Power Oscillation Damping with Phase Angle Regulators 276
7.1.6 Summary of Functional Requirements 277
7.2 Approaches to Thyristor-Controlled Voltage and Phase Angle Regulators (TCVRs and TCPARs) 277
7.2.1 Continuously Controllable Thyristor Tap Changers 280
7.2.2 Thyristor Tap Changer with Discrete Level Control 286
7.2.3 Thyristor Tap Changer Valve Rating Considerations 289
7.3 Switching Converter-Based Voltage and Phase Angle Regulators 290
7.4 Hybrid Phase Angle Regulators 293
CHAPTER 8 Combined Compensators: Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) and Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) 297
8.1 Introduction 297
8.2 The Unified Power Flow Controller 299
8.2.1 Basic Operating Principles 300
8.2.2 Conventional Transmission Control Capabilities 301
8.2.3 Independent Real and Reactive Power Flow Control 305
8.2.4 Comparison of UPFC to Series Compensators and Phase Angle Regulators 308
8.2.5 Control Structure 315
8.2.6 Basic Control System for P and Q Control 319
8.2.7 Dynamic Performance 322
8.2.8 Hybrid Arrangements: UPFC with a Phase Shifting Transformer 329
8.3 The Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) 333
8.3.1 Basic Operating Principles and Characteristics 334
8.3.2 Control Structure 343
8.3.3 Computer Simulation 344
8.3.4 Practical and Application Considerations 346
8.4 Generalized and Multifunctional FACTS Controllers 348
CHAPTER 9 Special Purpose Facts Controllers: NGH-SSR Damping Scheme and Thyristor-Controlled Braking Resistor 353
9.1 Subsynchronous Resonance 353
9.2 NGH-SSR Damping Scheme 358
9.2.1 Basic Concept 358
9.2.2. Design and Operation Aspects 361
9.3 Thyristor-Controlled Braking Resistor (TCBR) 362
9.3.1 Basic Concept 362
9.3.2 Design and Operation Aspects 364
CHAPTER 10 Application Examples 373
10.1 WAPA's Kayenta Advanced Series Capacitor (ASC) 373
10.1.1 Introduction and Planning Aspects 373
10.1.2 Functional Specification 376
10.1.3 Design and Operational Aspects 377
10.1.4 Results of the Project 380
10.2 BPA's Slatt Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) 382
10.2.1 Introduction and Planning Aspects 382
10.2.2 Functional Specifications 384
10.2.3 Design and Operational Aspects 387
10.2.4 Results of the Project 392
10.3 TVA's Sullivan Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) 394
10.3.1 Introduction and Planning Aspects 394
10.3.2 STATCOM Design Summary 396
10.3.3 Steady-State Performance 400
10.3.4 Dynamic Performance 401
10.3.5 Results of the Project 407
10.4 AEP's Inez Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) 407
10.4.1 Introduction and Planning Aspects 407
10.4.2 Description of the UPFC 411
10.4.3 Operating Performance 414
10.4.4 Results of the Project 423
INDEX 425
ABOUT THE AUTHORS 431