A Livelihood from Fishing: Globalization and Sustainable Fisheries Policies / Edition 1

by Alain Le Sann

Overview

The global fishing crisis has been described as the world's worst ecological disaster. Official sources describe the world's main fishing grounds as being fished at or above their limits; 70 per cent of fish stocks are regarded as fully exploited, over-exploited, depleted or recovering. But how many of us really understand the social and environmental impacts of the global trade in luxury fish products? Artificially coloured farmed shrimps from South Asia create exotic meals and huge profits, but cause major social and environmental disruptions. What are the social and environmental implications of feeding one-third of the world's fish catch to cattle, pigs, poultry and other fish? While, quite literally, nations and fishworkers go to war to defend access rights, and environmental organizations and fishworkers clash over policies, many of us do not know the difference between a trawl- and a drift-net. This book is the result of reflection, meetings and discussions since 1984 when the FAO organized the World Conference on Fisheries Management and Development and is also the fruit of close ties with fishworker organizations in both North and South. It contains a broad overview of fisheries (values and quantities of species caught), and describes for the general reader the social and nutritional issues raised by the modernization of fisheries worldwide. It aims to inform all who are interested in the protection of the marine environment and the plight of workers in the fisheries sector.

Product Details

ISBN-13:	9781853393983
Publisher:	Practical Action Publishing
Publication date:	12/28/1997
Edition description:	New Edition
Pages:	112
Product dimensions:	7.00(w) x 9.50(h) x 0.33(d)

Read an Excerpt

CHAPTER 1

FISHERIES TODAY

Fish is an essential food

All over the world, fish plays a vital role in feeding millions of people. In 1994, the average per capita availability of fish was only 13.6 kg per person per year. In some populations, the average consumption is already much higher. In countries of the Southern hemisphere, the consumption is 9 kg per person per year, a third of the developed countries' level of 27 kg per person per year.

Nonetheless, in most Asian and African countries, fish is a major food item, representing, respectively, 29 per cent and 25 per cent of the supply of animal protein in local diets. In certain landlocked African countries endowed with lakes, such as Chad, Uganda and Zaire, fish accounts for 30–40 per cent of the protein intake. Of the 40 countries scattered across the globe where fish is the principal source of protein, 39 are in the South.

As food, fish is particularly healthy and nutritious. Quite apart from its calorific value, it is a source of easily digestible, high-quality protein. Rich in amino acids, fish also contains calcium, phosphorus, iron, and vitamins A and D. It can enhance the diet of poor populations, where cereals and root vegetables or tubers comprise the staple food. As a supplement, fish thus helps prevent diseases associated with nutritional imbalances. Moreover, fish is relatively inexpensive. In Africa and Asia, fish often costs less than meat. At the fish auction in Abidjan, Ivory Coast, for instance, prices range from 130 CFA francs per kilogram for sardines to 250 CF A francs for threadfin, while prices for meat range from 250 to 1000 CFA francs (see Conserver et transformer le poisson, CTA-GRET, 1993).

Unfortunately, in the poorest countries, domestic consumption of marine produce is often hampered by the bias towards exports of fish products from South to North, as well as by the demographic growth.

Consumption levels are unequal

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that, in 1994, the global average fish consumption was 13.6 kg per person per year. But behind this figure lies a wide variation. Developed countries consume much more than so-called Third World countries – 27 kg per person per year, compared with 9 kg per person per year. The disparity is even starker if regional averages are compared. Japan, as a major fish consuming country, has a per capita fish consumption of over 70 kg per person per year, while in Iceland the per capita availability of fish is 90 kg per annum. By contrast, per capita fish consumption in Eastern Europe is very low: below 10 kg. In the South consumption figures are close to average. Consumption in South-east Asia and Latin America, at 9 kg per person per year, is only marginally higher than in sub-Saharan Africa, estimated at 7 kg per person per year.

Closer scrutiny at the national level reveals other disparities. The consumption figures for South Korea (52 kg per person per year), the Congo (35 kg per person per year) or the Philippines (34 kg per person per year) are all way above the average for the South. In the same way Iceland is way above average for countries in the North. At the other end of the scale, a resident of Guinea Bissau consumes only 3 kg per year, and in Germany or the Netherlands consumption is only 14 kg per person per year. Following the collapse of the former Soviet Union, per capita fish consumption in the Russian federation has slumped from 29 kg in 1989 to 9 kg in 1993. An important reason for this is the reduction in distant water activities.

Consumption of fish varies with a multitude of factors, such as the scale of production, price, branding and life-styles, among others. Nevertheless, the global demand for fish and marine products continues to grow steadily. This inevitably results in increased fishing effort.

The productivity of oceans varies

While the size of the oceans may give the impression of unlimited resource wealth, more than 90 per cent of the marine fish catch actually comes from only 10 per cent of the oceans – the continental shelf areas (9.9 per cent) and the upwelling zones (0.1 per cent) which tend to occur at the edge of the continental shelf.

As the marine biological cycle requires four elements – light, carbon dioxide, oxygen and nutrient salts – and since these occur in greater abundance over the continental shelf, most of the world's fishing takes place in these areas. Thus, countries which have the widest expanse of continental shelf enjoy a considerable advantage.

By contrast, the fishery productivity of the open oceans has been compared to that of deserts. This is a misleading concept, as the energy and production of the open oceans drive fisheries production. It is the ocean currents that bring nutrient-rich waters from the depths to the surface, producing an abundance of phytoplankton which provide food for many species of fish at the bottom of the food chain. These so-called upwelling zones are associated with some of the richest fishing grounds in the world. However, each species, whether benthic, demersal or pelagic, has its own specific environmental requirements in terms of depth, salinity, temperature and sea bed characteristics.

Fisheries production depends not only on the availability of the four key elements described above, but also on the presence of key habitats in the near-shore waters, in the inter-tidal zone, and in the land areas immediately adjacent to the coast. About two-thirds of all commercially valuable fish species spend the first – and most vulnerable – stages of their life in these waters. However, production is not uniform throughout the coastal area, but is associated with specific habitats and ecosystems. These are highly productive and diverse, which include coastal rivers, bays, wetlands, estuaries, mangroves, saltmarshes, mudflats, sea grass and seaweed beds, and coral reefs.

The temperate waters of the Northern hemisphere appear to be the most productive. The continental shelves here are wider and seasonal water temperature fluctuations ensure a good mixing of water. In warmer and colder regions, where layers of water remain at constant temperatures, the replenishment of nutrient salts is impeded. Nevertheless, tropical and equatorial waters can prove exceptionally productive when upwellings convey with them nutrient salts from below. This happens off the coast of California, Peru, Chile, South and West Africa, Somalia, and the Arabian peninsula.

There are also other qualitative differences between tropical and temperate marine zones. In the sea, as on land, the closer one gets to the equator – from either pole – the greater the species diversity in any given ecosystem. But population size of each species reduces. Thus in the tropical zone there are large numbers of species occurring in relatively small quantities, while in the temperate zones there are small numbers of species occurring in relatively large quantities. This is of crucial importance, though often ignored, in adopting different approaches to fisheries development and management in tropical and temperate fisheries.

Increasing production is not enough

The people of the Southern hemisphere consume a lot less fish than those in developed countries, but this does not mean that fisheries or fishing techniques are underdeveloped in the South.

While the quantity of fish caught per person is lower in the South (13.5 kg per person per year) than in the North (36 kg per person per year), many Southern countries export much of their catch or transform a major part of it into fishmeal. Thus, local markets and the people of these countries are effectively deprived of this precious protein.

Consider the case of Ecuador. The major part of Ecuadorean fish production (as much as 95 per cent of the catch, notably pilchards, tuna and prawns) is the result of industrial fishing effort and is meant for export. Artisanal fishermen alone supply home markets, but the economic importance of small-scale fishing and its contribution to local social and economic development generally goes unrecognized. More often than not, modernization is equated with industrialization, while the small-scale and artisanal sectors are viewed as obsolete and impervious to change. As a result, this sector finds it nearly impossible to obtain technical, financial or scientific aid from the state.

Of Ecuador's total fish production (672 330 tonnes annually, on average, between 1984 and 1993), the domestic market is supplied with only 13.8 per cent. Over 400 000 tonnes are transformed into fishmeal and 159 000 tonnes exported, while the annual consumption of an Ecuadorean remains under 9 kg.

Evidently, satisfying local food requirements is not a priority. Rather, the priority use of Ecuadorean marine biological resources is to earn foreign currency. The irony is that, despite the potential availability of adequate food supplies from the sea, a large proportion of the population suffers from malnutrition, particularly from a lack of protein. Nearly 200 000 children under five years of age are undernourished, and 46 per cent of pregnant women suffer from anaemia. This plight is caused not only by the inequitable distribution of income, but also by the country's economic choices, such as the decision to give priority to the export of marine produce.

Fish is fed to livestock

About a third of global fish production – almost 30 million tonnes – is transformed into fishmeal and into oil. This type of production began around the turn of the century in Scandinavian countries, where oil was produced for human consumption and fishmeal as animal feed. Subsequent technical advances, such as fish detection devices (echo sounders, etc.) and more efficient purse seines, occurred along with a boom in demand from the agriculture sector (where intensive pig and poultry farms are large consumers of fishmeal). This led to a sharp rise in industrial fishing, which targets almost exclusively small fish species like anchovies, sardines and horse mackerel.

The transformation of fish into fishmeal results in an enormous wastage of protein – around five tonnes of fish are used to produce just a single tonne of fishmeal. Moreover, when fishmeal is consumed by poultry, cattle, fish or shellfish (in aquaculture), a further loss of protein occurs. On average, 15 kg of fish are needed to manufacture 2.7 kg of fishmeal. This, in turn, becomes one element in the total feed mix, and contributes to the production of a salmon weighing 3 kg.

Over half the world's fishmeal comes from Peru, Chile and Japan. Yet, industrial fishing represents a substantial proportion of the fishing activities of several other nations. Southern countries supply half the world's fishmeal and are responsible for 7.0 per cent of its international trade. A substantial share of the marine biological resources of developing countries thus supplies the intensive agriculture production systems of industrialized countries.

Meanwhile, some countries of the South, notably in Asia, have lately begun to require fishmeal to supply their own growing numbers of fish and shrimp farms. With the development of this type of aquaculture, the South has been importing more fishmeal in recent years, while imports into Northern countries have remained stable.

Fishmeal production developed rapidly during the 1980s, then stabilized after 1989, a record year. The production for 1992 of six million tonnes was lower than even that of 1984. However, in 1994 increased catches of anchovy in South America, amounting to some 10 per cent of the global fish catch, led to a corresponding rise in fishmeal production, with nearly 3.5 million tonnes of fish processed in this way.

Japan is now a shaky giant

For a long time, Japan was regarded as the undisputed leader of the world's fishing industry, but today it finds itself reduced to a position of vulnerability. Although still a major fish producer, Japan is now also a leading importer of fish. The country's command is manifested more in terms of its dominance of markets and in Japanese investments in a large number of joint ventures, rather than in terms of fishing capacity in distant waters.

Although meat consumption in Japan is rising, the Japanese are essentially more fond of fish. With a consumption of 72 kg per person per year, they have a decided preference for higher-priced species like prawns, tuna and salmon. Japan's catches of such fish have declined to 7.36 million tonnes in 1994. Yet, incomes continue to rise. This has fuelled imports of marine produce. In 1995, nearly 3.5 million tonnes were shipped into Japan.

Japan's fishing industry has been plagued by problems of labour. This, in turn, has pushed up the average age of the Japanese fisherman. In 1992, 80 per cent of coastal fishermen were over 40, and 34.6 per cent over 60 (see Fishing News International, October 1993 and December 1993, and Supply and Demand of Fish and Fisheries Products in Japan, Guylaine Bourguignon, IFEP, Paris, July 1992). Today, Japanese tuna fishing companies recruit their crews from the Pacific islands.

Although the size of their catches has remained stable, the incomes of coastal fishermen have not kept pace with incomes in the industrial sector. Income from fishing therefore has to be supplemented by income from other sources.

All sectors of the Japanese fishing industry – industrial and small-scale – are affected by similar problems. Their fishing zones are overexploited and contaminated by pollutants. One reason for this is the creation of 'Exclusive Economic Zones' (EEZs). This development has driven the Japanese away from their traditional distant-water fisheries, particularly from those around the United States. Obliged to fish in their own EEZ and adjacent areas, the Japanese have overexploited their fish stocks. Coastal fishing and aquaculture have survived better, because traditional management of coastal waters by co-operatives has helped protect stocks. However, due to pollution and the dearth of cultivable area, aquaculture alone cannot solve Japan's crisis – and aquaculture can itself cause significant pollution.

(Continues…)

---

Excerpted from "A Livelihood from Fishing"
by .
Copyright © 1998 Intermediate Technology Publications.
Excerpted by permission of Practical Action Publishing Ltd.
All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.
Excerpts are provided by Dial-A-Book Inc. solely for the personal use of visitors to this web site.

---

Table of Contents

FOREWORD, ix,
PREFACE, x,
SECTION 1 FISHERIES TODAY, 1,
Fish is an essential food, 3,
Consumption levels are unequal, 5,
The productivity of oceans varies, 7,
Increasing production is not enough, 9,
Fish is fed to livestock, 11,
Japan is now a shaky giant, 13,
Canada's west-coast fishery, 15,
Opportunities from the sea, 17,
Threats from the land, 19,
China emerges as a fishing power, 21,
In the South, fishing is on the rise, 23,
Aquaculture gains in stature, 25,
Intensive aquaculture becomes the modern-day gold rush, 27,
The North imports more, 29,
The South exports more, 31,
France feeds off the South, 33,
Artisanal fishing creates jobs, 35,
Artisanal fishworkers are growing in number, 37,
The role of women is ignored, 39,
Quotas and fisheries mismanagement in the North, 41,
SECTION 2 KEY ISSUES, 43,
Globalization is spreading, 45,
Multinationals play a powerful role, 47,
Fishing helps repay Third World debt, 49,
Too much capital invested in global fisheries, 51,
Scarce and highly prized fishery resources, 53,
India is caught between the devil and the deep blue sea, 55,
Post-harvest losses are considerable, 57,
Coastal regions under threat, 59,
Mangroves are in danger, 61,
The growth of sport fishing, 63,
Exclusive economic zones take effect, 65,
Environmental groups turn on the pressure, 67,
Environmental laws: eco-protection or barriers to trade?, 69,
Conflicts erupt more and more frequently, 71,
Blue Europe is a huge market, 73,
Fisheries agreements have a commercial bias, 75,
Aquaculture competes in the market for fish, 77,
Individual transferable quotas (ITQs), 79,
SECTION 3 WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE, 81,
Artisanal fishworkers must be organized, 83,
The need for international co-operation, 85,
Women's roles must be recognized, 87,
The environment must be protected, 89,
Highly complex systems must be managed well, 91,
Management objectives should be rationalized, 93,
Participatory management, 95,
Make the best of fish as food, 97,
Choose environmentally sound and selective fishing techniques, 99,
Kerala bans trawling, 101,
Limit by-catches, 103,
Promote extensive aquaculture, 105,
Regulate the markets, 107,
How free and fair is the free market?, 109,
Review fisheries agreements, 111,
Implement a code of conduct for responsible fisheries, 113,
GLOSSARY, 115,
BIBLIOGRAPHY, 122,