Table of Contents
Foreword xv
About the Editor xvii
Contributing Authors xix
Acknowledgments xxiii
WAV™ page xxv
Section I Overview 1
1 Introduction David E. Vaughan 5
References 5
2 History of Reef Restoration Adam Smith Boze Hancock Nathan Cook David Vaughan 7
Introduction 7
Coral Reefs 8
Coral Restoration 8
Indigenous People and Reef Restoration 10
Scientific Pioneers of Reef Restoration 10
Management Support for Coral Reef Restoration 16
Communication and Education on Reef Restoration 17
The Role of Private Business in Reef Restoration 19
Global Literature Review 21
Discussion 26
Conclusions 27
Recommended Future Research and Goals 28
Acknowledgments 28
References 28
3 The Quandary of Active and Passive Reef Restoration in a Changing World Buki Rinkevich 31
What Is Ecological Restoration? 31
Active and Passive Restoration-the Path of Silviculture 33
The Path of Active and Passive Restoration in Coral Reefs 35
Quandary and Solution for Active Reef Restoration 37
Acknowledgments 38
References 38
4 Live Rock Farmer to Live Coral Farmer AKen Nedimyer 43
Introduction 43
Early History: The Passion for Coral Reefs 43
Catastrophic Changes 44
The Live Rock Farm 45
The Coral Farm 48
Coral Reef Restoration 51
A Coral Farm Becomes a Coral Nursery 52
Starting the Coral Restoration Foundation 60
Developing the Coral Tree Nursery Design 62
Taking It to the Next Level 64
Conclusions 65
Recommended Future Research 66
Acknowledgments 67
Section II Biological Considerations and Methodologies 69
5 Land and Field Nurseries David E. Vaughan 71
Introduction 71
Locations for Nurseries 73
Area Required 74
Equipment 74
Supplies and Materials 77
Designs, Plans, Drawings, and Layouts 80
Fouling-Maintenance and Cleaning 81
Label Everything 81
Measuring the Growth of Corals 84
Production Capacity 85
Vessels and Vehicles 86
Safety Concerns 86
Least Ecological Impact 86
Discussion and Future Work 87
Acknowledgments 87
References 87
6 Asexual Coral Propagation-Fragmentation and Micro-Fragmentation David E. Vaughan 89
Introduction 90
Micro-Fragmentation 95
New Ways of Fragmenting 99
Conclusions 101
Recommended Future Research and Future Techniques 101
Acknowledgments 102
References 102
7 Coral Fusion: Harnessing Coral Clonality for Reef Restoration Z. H. Forsman C. Page David E. Vaughan 103
Introduction 103
Coral Re-Skinning 104
Natural or Artificial Coral Modules 107
Tiling the Reef 108
Coral Seedlings 109
Fusion in Land Nurseries 110
Fusion in Field Nurseries 111
The Fusion Process 112
Fusion or Confusion: To Fuse or Not to Fuse? 114
Sexual or Asexual: To Clone or Not to Clone? 115
Speeding up Sexual Maturity with Micro-Fragmentation 116
Fusion for Genetic Crosses 117
Conclusions 118
Acknowledgments 119
References 119
8 Sexual Reproduction and Rearing Corals for Restoration Christopher Page Nicole D. Fogarty David E. Vaughan 123
Introduction 123
Sexual Reproduction of Corals 128
Larval Culture, Settlement, and Post-Metamorphosis 129
Larval Development 130
Settlement and Metamorphosis 132
Multiple Settlement and Survival 135
Post-Settlement Care 136
Grow Out to Juvenile Size 137
Nursery Growth to a Juvenile and Raceway Ecology 138
Managing Raceway Ecology 140
Conclusions 141
References 141
9 Assisted Evolution and Coral Reef Resilience Hanna R. Koch 145
Introduction 146
Assisted Evolution Approaches: Acclimatization (Nongenetic) Processes 154
Experimental Evolution of Algal Endosymbionts (Symbiodiniaceae) 161
Manipulating the Host Microbiome 168
Interspecific Hybridization 177
Intraspecific Managed Breeding and Genetic Adaptation 184
Conclusions 200
Acknowledgments 201
References 201
10 Genetic Considerations for Coral Reef Restoration Hanna R. Koch 221
Introduction 222
The Need for an Evolutionary Perspective Within Coral Reef Restoration 225
Factors That Could Drive Reductions in Fitness During Restoration Activities 229
Recommendations 237
The Coral Holobiont and Role of Algal Symbionts 255
Molecular Tools 257
Conclusions 261
Acknowledgments 263
References 263
Section III Case Studies From Around the World 285
11 Belize: Fragments of Hope Lisa Carne Maya A. Trotz 287
Introduction 288
Laughing Bird Caye National Park Experience 288
Current Techniques and Methods 304
Community Involvement 308
Next Steps 309
Conclusion 311
Acknowledgments 311
References 312
12 Indian Ocean: Seychelles Sarah Frias-Torres Claude Reveret Phanor Montoya-Maya Nirmal J. Shah 313
Introduction 313
Large-Scale Coral Reef Restoration Project in Seychelles 315
Small-Scale Coral Reef Restoration Projects in Seychelles 324
Biomimicry Applications and Inventions 326
Capacity Building: Empowering the End User 333
Summary 334
Recommended Future Research 335
Acknowledgments 336
References 336
13 Active Coral Reef Restoration In Eilat, Israel: Reconnoitering the Long-Term Prospectus Yael B. Horoszowski-Fridman Buki Rinkevich 341
Introduction 342
Techniques and Methods 345
Monitoring 349
Community Involvement, Volunteers, and Citizen Science 351
Major Outcomes and Discussion 354
Conclusions 360
Acknowledgments 361
References 361
14 Active Reef Restoration in the Mexican Caribbean: 15-Year Timeline Claudia Padilla-Souza Jaime González-Cano Juan Carlos Huitrón Baca Roberto Ibarra-Navarro 365
Introduction 366
Techniques and Methods 367
2004-2005 Period 367
2005-2009 Period 369
2009-2011 Period 370
2012-2016 Period 371
2017-2022 Period 377
Monitoring the Effectiveness of Restoration Actions 386
Community Involvement, Volunteers, and Citizen Science 387
Discussion 389
Conclusions 389
Acknowledgments 391
References 391
15 Active Coral Reef Restoration in Australia Adam Smith Nathan Cook Johnny Gaskell 393
Introduction 394
Techniques and Methods 394
Agincourt Reef, Cairns 2003 397
Manta Ray Bay, Whitsunday Islands 2017 397
Fitzroy Island, Cairns 2017-2019 397
Blue Pearl and Manta Ray Bay, Whitsunday Islands 2018-2020 400
Agincourt Reef #3, Cairns 2018-2020 401
Lovers Cove, Daydream Island, Whitsundays 2019 402
Vlasoff and Arlington Reef, Cairns 2018-2019 404
Monitoring 404
Community Involvement, Volunteers, and Citizen Science 407
Governance Overview 410
Permits and Guidelines 411
The Reef Restoration and Adaptation Program 413
Discussion 414
Conclusion 415
Acknowledgments 415
References 416
16 Reef Restoration in the Eastern Tropical Pacific, a Case Study in Golfo Duke, Costa Rica J. A. Kleypas T Villalobos-Cubero J. A. Marin-Moraga Á. Teran J. Cortés, J. J. Alvarado 417
Introduction 417
Techniques and Methods 420
Monitoring 422
Community Involvement, Volunteers, and Citizen Science 427
Discussion 427
Conclusion 428
Acknowledgments 428
References 428
17 Line Islands, Kiribati Austin Bowden-Kerby Taratau Kirata Laurence Romeo 431
Introduction 431
Coral Nursery Establishment 433
Larval-Based Coral Recruitment 436
May 2017 Nursery Expansion Using Threatened Acropora Recruits 438
The Discovery of Regenerating Coral Colonies via Surviving Tissue Fragments 440
Tabuaeran Findings 443
Discovery of Surviving Staghorn Corals on a Kiritimati Reef Flat 446
Outplanting of Corals from the Nursery 449
Discussion 453
Proposed 500-Meter No-Go and No-Fishing Area Around Cook Islet 455
Coral Reef Restoration Strategy for Kiribati 457
Corals for Conservation's Coral Reef Restoration for Climate Change Adaptation Strategy 459
Acknowledgments 461
References 462
18 Indonesia: Mars Assisted Reef Restoration System David J. Smith F. Mars S. Williams J. van Oostrum A. McArdle S. Rapi J. Jompa N. Janetski 463
Introduction 464
The Restoration Site and the Specific Restoration Problem 465
The MARRS Approach 467
The Reef Stars 467
The Restoration Build 468
Monitoring the Performance of the MARRS Technique 473
Brief Overview of Ecological Response to Restoration 477
Future Restoration and Achieving Scale Through Catalyzing Action 479
Acknowledgments 481
References 481
19 Hurricane Impacts on Reef Restoration: The Good, the Bad and the Ugly Jane Carrick Caitlin Lustic Diego Lirman Stephanie Schopmeyer Erich Bartels Dan Burdeno Craig Dahlgren Victor Manuel Galvan Dave Gilliam Liz Goergen Shannon Gore Sean Griffin Edwin A. Hernández-Delgado Dalton Hesley Jessica Levy Kemit Amon Lewis Shelby Luce Kerry Maxwell Samantha Mercado Margaret Miller Michael Nemeth Carlos Toledo-Hernández Claudia R Ruiz-Diaz Samuel E. Suleiman-Ramos Cory Walter Dana Williams 483
Introduction 484
Methods 485
Results 492
Lessons Learned: Damage Prevention Strategies 505
Conclusions 507
References 509
20 Bolstering Reef Restoration Efforts: A Multifaceted Approach from Reef Renewal Foundation Bonaire Francesca Virdis Bridget Hickey Ken Nedimyer 511
Introduction 511
Techniques and Methods 516
New Techniques: Boulder Corals and Larval Propagation 521
Monitoring 524
Community Involvement, Volunteers, and Citizen Science (If Applicable) 528
Discussion 530
Conclusion-Words of Wisdom from the Case Study 533
Acknowledgments 533
References 534
21 Punta Cana, Dominican Republic Jake Kheel David E. Vaughan 535
Introduction 536
Coral Restoration in Punta Cana 537
Center for Marine Innovation (CIM) 543
Dominican Consortium of Coastal Restoration 544
The Nature Conservancy 544
The Marine Sanctuary Arrecifes del Sureste 545
Discussion and Conclusions 547
Acknowledgments 547
References 547
Section IV The Future of Coral Reef Restoration 549
22 Emerging Technologies David E. Vaughan Ken Nedimyer 551
Introduction 551
New Ways of Fragmenting 552
Revisting Fragment Size 555
Revisiting Fragment Growth Rate 555
Feeds and Supplements for Coral Growth 555
Increasing the Survival of Sexual Reproduction 556
Vessels and Vehicles Used in Active Coral Restoration 557
Substrates and Adhesives for Coral Attachment 557
Modules and Components for Transportation 558
Innovative and Emerging Coral Nurseries 558
Increasing Coral Production at Scale 561
Selective Rapid Growth Cycle 564
Conclusion 566
Acknowledgments 566
Reference 566
23 Making Restoration Meaningful: A Vision for Working at Multiple Scales to Help Secure a Future for Coral Reefs ALes Kaufman Ilsa B. Kuffner Tom Moore Tali Vardi 567
Introduction 567
The Value of Restoration Efforts at Various Scales 569
Conclusions 576
Disclaimer 576
References 576
Epilogue 581
Appendix: Notes for Record Keeping Donna Vaughan 583
Why Keep Records? 583
Daily Environmental Records 583
Land-Based Nursery Records 584
Outplantings and Field Nursery Records 585
Costs of Operation 586
Conclusions 586
Acknowledgments 586
References 587
Appendix 1A Record of Daily Environmental Data 588
Appendix 1B Record for Daily Raceway Maintenance 589
Appendix 1C Monthly Record for Coral Growth and Health 590
Appendix 1D Record for Mechanical Maintenance at Land Based Nursery 591
Appendix 1E Record for Field Nursery/Outplant Site for Coral Growth and Health 592
Glossary 593
Index 601
