Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ix
List of Maps xi
Introduction 1
1 A Region in Turmoil 10
1.1 Kivu: Land of confrontation 10
National context 10
Crises of identity, of land and of politics 13
The new given: Influx of Hutu refugees 16
South Kivu: The Banyamulenge 21
1.2 Rwanda: From genocide to dictatorship 23
The power base 24
The drift 25
'Burundisation' of Rwanda 29
Militarisation of the political landscape 31
Continuity in managing the state 32
1.3 Burundi: From putsch to civil war 34
Creeping coup 34
Extension of the civil war 39
Coup of 25 July 1996 and its aftermath 41
1.4 Regional junctions 42
2 The 'War of Liberation' 45
2.1 The 'Banyamulenge Rebellion' and the Rwandan operation 45
2.2 The other eastern neighbours: Uganda and Burundi 58
2.3 Angola enters the fray: Kinshasa in 100 days 61
2.4 Other regional allies 65
2.5 U.S. involvement 66
Logistical and political support 66
Supply of material and personnel 70
Incoberence 74
Degree of involvement 77
3 Massacre of the Rwandan Refugees 80
3.1 Aborted international intervention 80
3.2 Crimes against humanity: Genocide? 87
Attacks against refugee camps and concentrations 93
Humanitarian assistance withheld or used as bait 96
Separation of men from women and children 97
Involvement of the RPA 98
Massacres of other groups 99
3.3 The force of manipulation 99
4 The Fall of the Mobutist State 102
4.1 The players 102
Laurent-Désiré Kabila and the Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïre (AFDL) 102
The Forces Armées Zaïroises (FAZ)and their allies 108
4.2 The diplomatic ballet 118
4.3 Meanwhile, in Kinshasa, the orchestra on the TITANIC 131
4.4 The new geopolitical situation 140
5 Congo: Waiting for Another War 144
5.1 The 'liberated territories' in the East 144
Two problems worse than before 144
Massive human rights violations 152
Practices of governance 153
5.2 The end of an alliance and the prelude to a new war 155
The regime adrift 155
The art of making enemies 164
Towards a new war 166
6 Impasse in Rwanda and Burundi 170
6.1 The civil wars 170
6.2 Political or military outcomes? 179
6.3 Justice in deadlock 181
6.4 Institutional developments and practice of governance 184
7 'The First African World War' 194
7.1 From Goma to Kitona, and to military stalemate 194
7.2 Shifting alliances 201
7.3 Wars within the war 207
The Kivus 207
Ituri 215
7.4 Privatisation and criminalisation 221
State collapse and the privatisation of public space 221
Criminalisation of states and economies 224
8 Negotiating the Transition 232
8.1 The political landscape 232
The regime in Kinshasa 232
The rebel movements 238
8.2 The false start of negotiations: From Victoria Falls to the death of Laurent Kabila 244
Many cooks in the same kitchen 244
The Lusaka process 247
From Lusaka to the assassination of Laurent Kabila 250
8.3 Towards an imposed settlement: From the accession of Joseph Kabila to Sun City 252
A dynastic succession 252
From Sun City to Pretoria, and back to Sun City 256
8.4 Political transition in conflict 261
The bumpy road towards elections 261
The 2006 elections 271
Conclusion 279
Appendix 1 Sources on the killings of Rwandan refugees in early 1997 287
Appendix 2 Chronology 291
Appendix 3 List of abbreviations 297
References 303
Index 319
