Holocaust Journey: Traveling in Search of the Past

CHAPTER ONE

DAY 1 LONDON -- BERLIN

'Powerless against evil people'

6 a.m.

We assemble at Waterloo Station. Two taxis that began their respective journeys an hour ago (in East Finchley and Stanmore) have collected seven of us between them. The remaining five come under their own steam. The last to arrive is Ben Helfgott; born in Poland in 1929, he was nearly ten years old on the outbreak of war. He will be our Polish speaker, having never forgotten the language of his youth.

6.55 a.m.

The train draws out of Waterloo Station. The first link with the war comes almost immediately, as we pass (on our left) a church with brick bands around its spire. It is at the corner of Westminster Bridge Road and Kennington Road. The spire is all that remains of the pre-war Christ Church. The buildings in this area were systematically destroyed during the London Blitz, but this distinctive spire remained standing. Although the church was bombed, the spire remained, defiant and alone. Travellers coming into Waterloo by rail from the South of England would see it, and could feel reassured that all was well -- just about.

The journey to the coast takes us through 'Bomb Alley' in Kent, above which the German VI flying bombs (the doodlebugs) flew towards London, and where some of them were shot down.

8.05 a.m.

We enter the Channel Tunnel. I study the Berlin guide books that I have brought with me. The Baedeker for 1912, Berlin and Its Environs, captures one of the eras which we will explore, before the First World War and before the Holocaust. The Wannsee, where the Endlosung (the euphemistically named 'Final Solution') of the Jewish Question, received its bureaucratic endorsement, is described in the guide book as 'a fashionable villa-colony, the handsome houses of which are grouped in a wide curve on the high banks of the picturesque Wannsee'. We should be there forty-eight hours from now.

8.30 a.m./9.30 a.m. (French time)

We come out on French soil. To the south, Calais is clearly visible. We are travelling through a countryside from which the Germans deported Jews to their deaths. They did so from the spring of 1942 until the summer of 1944. The Jews in the region we are going through now lived so close to the English Channel, yet they were totally vulnerable. Prom this moment of our journey, each town and many of the villages through which we will pass -- today, and every day during the next two weeks -- from northern France to eastern Poland, had Jews living in them. These were Jewish communities that often dated back five hundred years and more. Each of them was to be uprooted and destroyed in the course of those two years.

10.40 a.m.

We cross the line of the Western Front; a small British war cemetery in the corner of a field is the only visible sign of where the fighting had been. There is hardly much chance of seeing more, given the speed we are going, which is 300 kilometres per hour, as the announcer told us shortly after we emerged from the tunnel.

10.42 a.m.

The train speeds through the area of north-western Prance which was occupied by Germany in both world wars. I report to the group whenever there seems a point of interest from our historical perspective.

10.45 a.m.

Lille. As the train stops in the station, I stand in front of the group -- who look at me from their seats on both sides of the aisle -- and tell them a story involving this city. Among the 6,000,000 Jews murdered during the Holocaust was Mozes Hirschsprung. He was born in Auschwitz in 1901 when it was an Austro-Hungarian border town. His wife Helene was also born in Auschwitz, in 1909. Between the wars they emigrated to Holland, where their two children were born (in 1933 and 1938). When war came, the family fled from Amsterdam to Lille. And from Lille they were deported back to Auschwitz -- their home town -- and murdered there, within two miles of where they had been born.

The Hirschsprungs were among 1,000 Jews deported from Lille to Auschwitz on a single day, 15 September 1942. Also deported that day was Fanny Yerkowski. Forty-eight years old, she had been born in London on the eve of the First World War. Having married a Frenchman before the Second World War, she went to live in Lille, and shared the fate of the Lille deportees. Adolf Eichmann's department in Berlin, which was responsible for the deportations, was not interested' in nationality, but in race. Another of the Lille deportees, twenty-one-year-old Bernice Winer, had been born in Switzerland. In the eyes of the Gestapo, the neutrality of Switzerland was irrelevant to her fate.

More than seven weeks after the Normandy landings of June 1944, there was a deportation from Paris which included 300 young orphans, all of whom were gassed in Auschwitz concentration camp. Among the orphans were two brothers from Lille, Marcel and Gaston Leibovicz, aged fourteen and thirteen.

11.00 a.m.

As I follow on the map the train's rapid movement, it crosses the French border into Belgium.

11.10 a.m.

We reach Brussels, and leave the train for an hour, before our connection. We pass the time in a small station cafe.

Reaching the platform from which we will leave for Berlin, I speak of another of the orphans deported from Paris on 31 July 1944, and gassed in Auschwitz: the seven-year-old Alain Jurkovitch, born in Brussels. He was born in 1936, as I was. Our birthdays were only a few months apart

A Jewish community already existed here in the mid-thirteenth century. The Jews of Brussels, like Jews throughout Europe, were massacred at the hands of the local mob at the time of the Black Death, in 1348 and 1349, when Jews were held responsible for the spread of the plague. There was a further massacre in 1370 when the Jews of Brussels were accused of 'desecrating the Host', another frequent medieval charge. To this day, the allegedly desecrated wafers -- which became an object of worship here in Brussels -- are commemorated in annual prayers on the third Sunday of July, and in the stained-glass windows of St Gudule Cathedral (which alas, in changing trains for Berlin, we do not have time to visit)

12.07 p.m.

Leave Brussels, on the Berlin express.

1.17 p.m.

Liege. We are travelling through a part of Belgium where many young Jewish children were hidden by Christian families, and brought up as Christians. This saved their lives.

The train goes through Verviers, Herbesthal and Welkenraedt. From Welkenraedt, a branch line and a road leads three kilometres south to Eupen, the main town of the small border region which was transferred to Belgium after the defeat of Germany in 1918.

Ben recalls how, as a young boy in Poland, he learned about history from the stamps that he collected before the war. One prized set was the German stamps from the First World War overprinted 'Eupen-Malmedy'. Germany again annexed the area on conquering Belgium in May 1940. Ben recalled: 'When we were ordered to move into the ghetto, a German gendarme took my stamp album. I asked him, "May I have it back?" He gave a swipe at me and kicked me away. I never saw my stamp collection again.'

After Germany's defeat in 1945, Eupen and Malmedy were returned to Belgium.

Six kilometres after Welkenraedt, we cross into Germany. After emerging from a tunnel, we see, to the north, the spires of Aachen cathedral.

1.55 p.m.

Aachen. As we stop briefly in the station, I have time to give a short survey, in this case courtesy of the Encyclopaedia Judaica. whose very first entry Aachen is. This particular entry was written by Ernst Roth, the Chief Rabbi of the State of Hesse, in Frankfurt-on-Main.

Jews were living here in Aachen when it was the capital of the Carolingian Empire. Among a delegation sent by Charlemagne to the Caliph Harun al-Rashid in Baghdad in 797 AD was a Jew, by the name of Isaac, who later wrote an account of the journey to Baghdad and back. Isaac was probably the delegation's interpreter or guide. Jewish settlement was virtually continuous at Aachen for more than a thousand years. An expulsion in 1629 was effective only for a decade. Those expelled were not sent very far: just a mile or two out of the city to the village of Burtscheid, now an eastern suburb.

The modern Jewish community here in Aachen was organised in 1847 under the Prussian Jewish Community Statute. Two years earlier it had established a Jewish elementary school. The synagogue was built in 1862. On the portal was a Hebrew inscription from Isaiah: 'For my house shall be called a house of prayer for all peoples.' The synagogue was destroyed on the night of 9-10 November 1938, Kristallnacht -- the Night of Breaking Glass -- when at the instigation of the Nazi leaders, synagogues throughout Germany were set on fire.

On the outbreak of war in September 1939 there were 1,700 Jews living in Aachen and 3,500 in the towns and villages around it. Seven hundred were deported at the end of 1941 and during 1942 to the eastern death camps -- most of them to Belzec, which we will visit on this journey. A further 250 were deported to Theresienstadt, which we will also visit. Of those deported to Theresienstadt, twenty-five returned after the war.

In 1957 the German government paid for the building of a synagogue and a Jewish community centre here. The community today numbers about two hundred. With the exception of the war years, and the brief expulsion in the seventeenth century, there have been Jews in Aachen for at least 1,200 years.

The year 1997 will mark the 1,200th anniversary of the arrival of Jews in Aachen. Hitler's self-proclaimed 'Thousand Year Reich' lasted for twelve years.

Ben tells us of a German girl from Aachen, a non-Jew, who was working with other German women in the same hut as he in the slave labour camp at Schlieben, south of Berlin. These woman were forcibly evacuated from Aachen with thousands of other Germans just before the Allied forces took the town: 'It was a whole family from Aachen, the parents and two teenage daughters. It was from them that we learned of the Allied bombing of Aachen. The conditions for the Jews at Schlieben were atrocious, and my physical state was fast deteriorating. One day I asked the girl to let me have a ride on her bicycle. I wanted to see whether I still had some strength left in me. I hadn't ridden a bicycle for over two years. There was a boy in the Hitler Youth, he was keen on her but she detested him. As I was riding on the bike, overjoyed at the thought that my strength and confidence had not entirely gone, he suddenly appeared and ordered me to stop riding. When the next soup distribution came -- it was not really soup, just putrid, lukewarm water -- and I held out my rusty tin, the Hitler Youth took the ladle from the cauldron and threw the soup in my face. Luckily for me the soup was never really hot. But it was a terrible humiliation.'

1.59 p.m.

The train leaves Aachen and continues eastward.

2.02 p.m.

We pass through Burtscheid, the village -- now suburb -- to which the Jews of Aachen were expelled in the seventeenth century.

2.12 p.m.

Eschweiler. In the nineteenth century the Jewish community here was proud of its distinguished rabbi. Five kilometres across the fields to the north is the village of Hoengen. As in many hundreds of German villages, half a dozen Jewish families lived here before the war. In Hoengen, most of the Jews were farmers; one, Michael Lucas, was the local butcher. The Jews of Hoengen built their first synagogue in 1926. Twelve years later came Kristallnacht. What happened to the synagogue was witnessed by Michael Lucas's nephew Eric, who, a few weeks later, was sent to Britain on one of the Kindertransport trains that took ten thousand German-Jewish children to safety in those tumultuous months. Forty-five years later, Eric Lucas recalled how, at first, the Nazi Stormtroopers -- the Sturm Abteilung (known as the SA) -- stood on guard outside the small synagogue:

'After a while, the Stormtroopers were joined by people who were not in uniform; and suddenly, with one loud cry of, "Down with the Jews", the gathering outside produced axes and heavy sledgehammers. They advanced towards the little synagogue which stood in Michael's own meadow, opposite his house. They burst the door open, and the whole crowd, by now shouting and laughing, stormed into the little House of God.

'Michael, standing behind the tightly drawn curtains, saw how the crowd tore the Holy Ark wide open; and three men who had smashed the Ark, threw the Scrolls of the Law of Moses out. They threw them these Scrolls, which had stood in their quiet dignity, draped in blue or wine-red velvet, with their little crowns of silver covering the tops of the shafts by which the Scroll was held during the service -- to the screaming and shouting mass of people which had filled the little synagogue.

'The people caught the Scrolls as if they were amusing themselves with a ball-game -- tossing them up into the air again, while other people flung them further back until they reached the street outside. Women tore away the red and blue velvet and everybody tried to snatch some of the silver adorning the Scrolls.

'Naked and open, the Scrolls lay in the muddy autumn lane; children stepped on them and others tore pieces from the fine parchment on which the Law was written -- the same Law which the people who tore it apart had, in vain, tried to absorb for over a thousand years.

'When the first Scroll was thrown out of the synagogue, Michael made a dash for the door. His heart beat violently and his senses became blurred and hazy. Unknown fury built up within him, and his clenched fists pressed against his temples. Michael forgot that to take one step outside the house amongst the crowds would mean his death.

'The Stormtroopers who still stood outside the house watching with stern faces over the tumultuous crowd which obeyed their commands without really knowing it, would have shot the man, quietly, in an almost matter-of-fact way. Michael's wife, sensing the deadly danger, ran after her husband, and clung to him, imploring him and begging him not to go outside. Michael tried to ding her aside, but only her tenacious resistance brought him back to his senses.

'He stood there, in the small hall behind the front door, looking around him for a second, as if he did not know where he was. Suddenly he leaned against the wall, tears streaming from his eyes, like those of a little child.

'After a while, he heard the sound of many heavy hammers outside. With trembling legs he got up from his chair and looked outside once more. Men had climbed on to the roof of the synagogue, and were hurling the tiles down, others were cutting the cross beams as soon as they were bare of cover. It did not take long before the first heavy grey stones came tumbling down, and the children of the village amused themselves as they flung stones into the many-coloured windows.

'When the first rays of a cold and pale November sun penetrated the heavy dark clouds, the little synagogue was but a heap of stones, broken glass and smashed-up woodwork.

'Where the two well-cared-for flowerbeds had flanked both sides of the gravel path leading to the door of the synagogue, the children had lit a bonfire and the parchment of the Scrolls gave enough food for the flames to eat up the smashed-up benches and doors, and the wood, which only the day before had been the Holy Ark for the Law of Moses.'

The Germans were burying the Scrolls of their own Old Testament: the Holy Bible of more than a thousand years of German Christianity.

2.42 p.m.

Cologne. Under the enormous arched roof of the station there is a great air of bustle. The station announcer is calling out the next trains. In twelve minutes, an express leaves for Nuremberg and Munich.

We have time to leave the train, go into the cathedral square, walk down to the Rhine, and return to the train. In the shadow of the cathedral, where Paul photographs the flag of the European Union fying next to the German flag, I recount a brief history of the Jews of Cologne. Theirs was one of the oldest Jewish communities in Germany. Jews first came here in Roman times, several hundred years before Christianity. When Christianity came to Cologne, the Jews were at once affected by it. Two edicts of the Emperor Constantine, dated 321 AD and 331 AD imposed heavy taxes on the Jewish community, but exempted the community officials from some of these obligations. The first of these edicts, which survives to this day in the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana in Rome, is precisely dated 11 December 321 AD.

One of the first synagogues in Germany was built here, possibly as early as 1012, certainly by 1040. The synagogue in Worms dates from the same period. A Jewish chronicler described Cologne in the late eleventh century as 'a distinguished city from where life, livelihood and settled law issued for all our brethren scattered far and wide'. In 1096 the crusaders of the First Crusades murdered most of the Jews here. When the Jews were expelled in 1424, the synagogue was turned into a Christian chapel. Its ancient Jewish foundations were laid bare during a British bombing raid in 1942. By then, all 11,000 Jews who had been unable to emigrate before the war were deported either to Theresienstadt, or to the Lodz ghetto, or to the Lublin region: to perish there, or to be murdered later on, when deported to the eastern death camps and to Auschwitz.

After the war, some six hundred Cologne Jews -- the remnant of the 11,000 who had been deported -- returned to the city. The first synagogue to be rebuilt and reopened in Germany after the war was here. A plaque records that it was opened by Konrad Adenauer in 1959. As Chancellor of the German Federal Republic from 1949 to 1963, Adenauer negotiated with David Ben-Gurion the reparations agreement whereby Germany paid compensation to survivors, and to the State of Israel. To this day there is a medieval mikveh (ritual bath) in the centre of one of the main squares of Cologne, leading off a street that is still called Judengasse (Jewish Street).

I recall my first visit to Cologne, in 1953, and how shocked I was at the acres and acres of bombed houses; a moonscape of devastation even then. It was here in Cologne, on 30 May 1942, that the British launched their first bombing raid over Germany with 1,000 bombers (of which thirty-nine were shot down during the raid). In one of the Jewish listening posts, Geneva, the raid was a sign of hope, making it possible, as Richard Lichtheim wrote, that 'the war could be finished this year by heavy bombardment from the air'. For the Jews inside the Warsaw ghetto the news of the Cologne raid had an immediate impact on morale. This is what Emanuel Ringelblum, one of the leading Jewish historians in Poland before the. war, wrote in his diary in the Warsaw ghetto (where he was later killed):

'Day in, day out, in hundreds of cities throughout Poland and Russia, thousands upon thousands of Jews are being systematically murdered according to a preconceived plan, and no one seems to take our part. The bombing of Cologne, the destruction of thousands of buildings, the thousands of civilian victims, have slaked our thirst for revenge somewhat. Cologne was an advance payment on the vengeance that must and shall be taken on Hitler's Germany for the millions of Jews they have killed. So the Jewish population of tortured Europe considered Cologne its personal act of vengeance. After the Cologne affair, I walked around in a good mood, feeling that, even if I should perish at their hands, my death is prepaid!'

3.20 p.m.

The train pulls out of Cologne station, past the equestrian statue of Wilhelm II ('Kaiser Bill' to the British in the First World War), and crosses the Rhine.

There were two transports of Jews from Cologne in the autumn of 1941. Both were sent to the Lodz ghetto in Poland. The precise German records noted that both trains arrived in Lodz on October 23, and that on them were 2,014 deportees. Three months later, most of those deportees had been deported again, to a camp near the village of Chelmno, where they were murdered. We shall be going to Lodz and Chelmno on our last day.

3.25 p.m.

Leave Cologne-Mulheim station, on the east bank of the Rhine.

3.40 p.m.

We reach Solingen. Robin O'Neil (our retired Detective Inspector) is reading a book about the Piotrkow ghetto. He is struck by the factories that employed a number of Jewish children. Ben, who was in two of those factories -- Hortensja and Bugaj -- from the age of twelve to the age of fourteen, tells us: 'The pre-war owner of the glass factory where I worked in Piotrkow during the war was a German. He continued to own it once the Germans had taken over the town. He was a decent man. He was prepared to employ Jews, and he would make a case to employ them. He took on boys from the age of twelve. He didn't have to. Had he been a Jew hater, those boys would not have survived. In the woodwork factory the director was also a decent man who allowed children to work. He would never lay a hand on anybody. A higher percentage of children survived in Piotrkow than any other town -- because of these two employers. We were beaten, but there were no killings, except on one occasion when the Gestapo killed thirteen slave labourers in Bugaj. We did not starve. We worked alongside the Poles. The railway ran just outside the factory, and we saw the deportation trains go by.'

3.55 p.m.

The train stops at Wuppertal. In 1935 there were 2,471 Jews living here. Those who did not emigrate before 1939 were deported to their deaths.

It was when he saw a Royal Air Force film of the bombing of Wuppertal in 1943 that Churchill turned to his guests with the words: 'Are we beasts? Are we taking this too far?'

4.10 p.m.

Hagen. Ben is reflecting on the contrast between those who suffered and those who did not. 'Millions die. In the march of history it is of no consequence. For those who suffer directly, it is a tragedy. For the rest, they say, "Tragic," but it does not affect them. It does not affect their lives or their outlook. I was in it. Had my parents left Poland for Palestine, as they might have done, I would have had some relatives somewhere -- I would have had someone.'

Ben's uncle, his father's elder brother, after whom Ben is named, was one of the victims of the post-First World War influenza epidemic, in which as many as twenty million people died. 'Who now remembers it?' Ben asks. 'Who cares? Who puts it in the history books?'

4.50 p.m.

Soest. This is the region which was flooded when the British bombed the nearby Mohne dam. There was an enormous water reservoir here that supplied large numbers of factories. When the waters were breached, the factories could not operate. In the resultant floods, several thousand German civilians were killed. The work of reconstruction was formidable. Ben reflects on the failure of the Germans to make full use of the Jewish manpower at their disposal for such tasks. 'They could have used us from the beginning. But their hatred for the Jews was greater than their self-interest -- the aim to win the war. They talked themselves into the killings.'

5.25 p.m.

Paderborn. We pass Sennelager, for many years the headquarters of the British Army of Occupation on the Rhine (BAOR), and one of the largest British military camps in post-1945 West Germany. For the survivors of the Holocaust, the British soldiers came, not as conquerors but as liberators, as did the French and American armies further south, and the Russians in the east. Ben, who was liberated by the Russians at Theresienstadt in May 1945, is in philosophical mood, reflecting on how swiftly, in the timespan of this century, events unfolded: between Hitler coming to power and the Allied armies overrunning Germany was only twelve years. 'What matters is human relations,' he says. 'Families, living, looking after children, living in peace and harmony with each other, enjoying each other's company, making a life that should be decent and palatable to everyone. There is little else any of us can do. We are powerless against nature; we are powerless against evil people.'

6.10 p.m.

Bad Lippspringe. There seems to be a story for every place we go through; it was here, at the end of the Second World War, that an American officer, Captain Irving Gruber, who was then serving as a medical officer with the Ninth Army, took over, with a single enlisted man, the local hospital that had been run until then by German nuns. The patients were Russian slave labourers who had been liberated while working in the nearby salt mine. It was in this way that Dr Gruber, a Jew, learned of the cruel wartime fate of another group of Hitler's victims. We will be visiting many places where non-Jewish victims of Nazism were murdered, including a total of more than three million Soviet soldiers who were killed after they had been captured, while prisoners-of-war.

Here in Germany the train goes through rolling countryside. There are no brick and concrete pillboxes here, as in France and Britain, at the edge of rivers or at the approach to gorges; this is not surprising, as the Germans did not fear invasion.

6.12 p.m.

Bad Pyrmont. Beautiful rolling wooded hills.

6.25 p.m.

Hameln. A Jewish woman from this town, Glueckel of Hameln (1645-1724), told her fellow-Jews: 'Above all, my children, be honest in money matters with Jews and non-Jews alike. If you have money or possessions belonging to other people, take better care of them than you would if they were your own. The first question that is put to a man on entering the next world is whether or not he was faithful in his business dealings.'

This is the Pied Piper's town. Now more than twelve hours into our journey with the group, I feel something of a Pied Piper, with my regular readings as the stations pass and the countryside rolls by.

7.05 p.m.

We cross the River Leine and draw into Hanover station. The train stops for five minutes.

Jews were first recorded living here in 1292: 'Two hundred years before Columbus discovered America,' comments Ben. It was never a very large community; in 1933 there were just under five thousand Jews. But they boasted more than twenty cultural and welfare institutions. Among the Jews living here between the wars was Zyndel Grynszpan. Born in Poland in 1886, he came to Hanover in 1911. When 15,000 Polish-born Jews were taken from their homes all over Germany on 27 October 1938, he was told by a policeman: 'You are going to come back immediately; you shouldn't take anything with you. Take with you your passport.'

Zyndel Grynszpan later described what happened: 'They took us to the concert hall on the banks of the Leine and there, there were about six hundred people from all the areas. There we stayed until Friday night; about twenty-four hours; then they took us in police trucks, in prisoners' lorries, about twenty men in each truck, and they took us to the railway station. The streets were black with people shouting, "The Jews out to Palestine." After that, when we got to the train, they took us by train to Neubenschen on the German-Polish border.'

We shall be going through Neubenschen (now Zbaszynek) on the last night of our journey. Zyndel Grynszpan's account of what had happened to him in Hanover that evening so angered his son Hirsch, who was then in Paris, that he shot and killed a German diplomat stationed there; the sequel was the Kristallnacht, during which hundreds of synagogues and shops were attacked, plundered and burned throughout Germany, including Hanover.

More than half of Hanover's Jews had managed to emigrate before the outbreak of war. Those who were in the city when war broke out in September 1939 were deported to the East two years later. After the war, sixty-six survivors returned (out of 2,900 deportees). A new synagogue was opened in 1963; today it serves about five hundred Jews.

As with so many German towns, there were several slave labour camps near Hanover where Jews were forced to work. One was a stone quarry. Chaim Liss, who had been deported from the Polish city of Lodz with his father when he was thirteen years old, later recalled their time there. I read aloud from his letter to me: 'This was of course very hard labour, and the death rate among the prisoners increased drastically, and the people died like flies, due also to the meagre food rations we were getting. My father was among those who did not survive.' Unknown to Chaim Liss at the time, his mother was also dying of malnutrition at a slave labour camp elsewhere in Germany.

7.25 p.m.

Lehrte. A railway junction. Belsen is forty-three kilometres to the north of us. Here, at the end of 1944 and in the first three months of 1945, in the very last months of the war, tens of thousands of Jews from slave labour camps throughout central and eastern Germany were brought and literally dumped. More than 10,000 died of illness or starvation before the British army arrived, among them Anne Frank. Another 5,000 died after liberation, being too weak or too sick to survive.

7.30 p.m.

The countryside that rolls past our windows is pastoral and seemingly unremarkable. But it hides a terrible past. Seventy-five kilometres to the south is Nordhausen, the site of a slave labour camp that was liberated by the United States Army on 15 April 1945. On the same day, British troops (then fighting to the north of where we are travelling now) liberated Belsen. Hundreds of Jews were found there. They were, the United States Signal Corps recorded, 'almost unrecognisable as human. All were little more than skeletons: the dead lay beside the sick and dying in the same beds: filth and human excrement covered the floors. No attempt had been made to alleviate the disease and gangrene that had spread unchecked among the prisoners.'

7.50 p.m.

Brunswick. This town -- in German, Braunschweig -- had a Jewish community from the twelfth century. When the Black Death came in 1348-9, and Jews all over Central Europe were blamed for it, half the Jewish community here, then numbering about one hundred and fifty, was murdered as punishment for allegedly being the harbingers of death.

In 1543 there were anti-Jewish riots here, provoked by the 'honest advice' given to pious Christians that year by Martin Luther, about how Jews should be treated. Luther had first hoped to convert the Jews to Christianity. But when he failed, he turned against them.