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An analysis of the elements of speech and types of linguistic structure.
| Preface | iii | |
| I | Introductory: Language Defined | 1 |
| Language a cultural, not a biologically inherited, function | ||
| Futility of interjectional and sound-imitative theories of the origin of speech | ||
| Definition of language | ||
| The psychophysical basis of speech | ||
| Concepts and language | ||
| Is thought possible without language? | ||
| Abbreviations and transfers of the speech process | ||
| The universality of language | ||
| II | The Elements of Speech | 17 |
| Sounds not properly elements of speech | ||
| Words and significant parts of words (radical elements, grammatical elements) | ||
| Types of words | ||
| The word a formal, not a functional unit | ||
| The word has a real psychological existence | ||
| The sentence | ||
| The cognitive, volitional, and emotional aspects of speech | ||
| Feeling-tones of words | ||
| III | The Sounds of Language | 32 |
| The vast number of possible sounds | ||
| The articulating organs and their share in the production of speechsounds: lungs, glottal cords, nose, mouth and its parts | ||
| Vowel articulations | ||
| How and where consonants are articulated | ||
| The phonetic habits of a language | ||
| The "values" of sounds | ||
| Phonetic patterns | ||
| IV | Form in Language: Grammatical Processes | 44 |
| Formal processes as distinct from grammatical functions | ||
| Intercrossing of the two points of view | ||
| Six main types of grammatical process | ||
| Word sequence as a method | ||
| Compounding of radical elements | ||
| Affixing: prefixes and suffixes; infixes | ||
| Internal vocalic change; consonantal change | ||
| Reduplication | ||
| Functional variations of stress; of pitch | ||
| V | Form in Language: Grammatical Concepts | 64 |
| Analysis of a typical English sentence | ||
| Types of concepts illustrated by it | ||
| Inconsistent expression of analogous concepts | ||
| How the same sentence may be expressed in other languages with striking differences in the selection and grouping of concepts | ||
| Essential and non-essential concepts | ||
| The mixing of essential relational concepts with secondary ones of more concrete order | ||
| Form for form's sake | ||
| Classification of linguistic concepts: basic or concrete, derivational, concrete relational, pure relational | ||
| Tendency for these types of concepts to flow into each other | ||
| Categories expressed in various grammatical systems | ||
| Order and stress as relating principles in the sentence | ||
| Concord | ||
| Parts of speech: no absolute classification possible; noun and verb | ||
| VI | Types of Linguistic Structure | 97 |
| The possibility of classifying languages | ||
| Difficulties | ||
| Classification into form-languages and formless languages not valid | ||
| Classification according to formal processes used not practicable | ||
| Classification according to degree of synthesis | ||
| "Inflective" and "agglutinative" | ||
| Fusion and symbolism as linguistic techniques | ||
| Agglutination | ||
| "Inflective" a confused term | ||
| Threefold classification suggested: what types of concepts are expressed? what is the prevailing technique? what is the degree of synthesis? Four fundamental conceptual types | ||
| Examples tabulated | ||
| Historical test of the validity of the suggested conceptual classification | ||
| VII | Language as a Historical Product: Drift | 120 |
| Variability of language | ||
| Individual and dialectic variations | ||
| Time variation or "drift" | ||
| How dialects arise | ||
| Linguistic stocks | ||
| Direction or "slope" of linguistic drift | ||
| Tendencies illustrated in an English sentence | ||
| Hesitations of usage as symptomatic of the direction of drift | ||
| Leveling tendencies in English | ||
| Weakening of case elements | ||
| Tendency to fixed position in the sentence | ||
| Drift toward the invariable word | ||
| VIII | Language as a Historical Product: Phonetic Law | 141 |
| Parallels in drift in related languages | ||
| Phonetic law as illustrated in the history of certain English and German vowels and consonants | ||
| Regularity of phonetic law | ||
| Shifting of sounds without destruction of phonetic pattern | ||
| Difficulty of explaining the nature of phonetic drifts | ||
| Vowel mutation in English and German | ||
| Morphological influence on phonetic change | ||
| Analogical levelings to offset irregularities produced by phonetic laws | ||
| New morphological features due to phonetic change | ||
| IX | How Languages Influence Each Other | 158 |
| Linguistic influences due to cultural contact | ||
| Borrowing of words | ||
| Resistances to borrowing | ||
| Phonetic modification of borrowed words | ||
| Phonetic interinfluencings of neighboring languages | ||
| Morphological borrowings | ||
| Morphological resemblances as vestiges of genetic relationship | ||
| X | Language, Race and Culture | 170 |
| Naive tendency to consider linguistic, racial, and cultural groupings as congruent | ||
| Race and language need not correspond | ||
| Cultural and linguistic boundaries not identical | ||
| Coincidences between linguistic cleavages and those of language and culture due to historical, not intrinsic psychological, causes | ||
| Language does not in any deep sense "reflect" culture | ||
| XI | Language and Literature | 182 |
| Language as the material or medium of literature | ||
| Literature may move on the generalized linguistic plane or may be inseparable from specific linguistic conditions | ||
| Language as a collective art | ||
| Necessary esthetic advantages or limitations in any language | ||
| Style as conditioned by inherent features of the language | ||
| Prosody as conditioned by the phonetic dynamics of a language | ||
| Index | 191 |
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