An art historian noted for her authoritative reference works, Merrifield clearly demonstrates the principles of light and shade by revealing the effects of common daylight, sunshine, and candle or artificial light on geometrical solids. Her simple explanations are accompanied by illustrations of cubes, prisms, pyramids, cylinders, spheres, ovals, and cones.
As useful and practical today as it was when first published well over a century ago, Light and Shade provides beginning and advanced art students with valuable insights into effective drawing and sketching.
An art historian noted for her authoritative reference works, Merrifield clearly demonstrates the principles of light and shade by revealing the effects of common daylight, sunshine, and candle or artificial light on geometrical solids. Her simple explanations are accompanied by illustrations of cubes, prisms, pyramids, cylinders, spheres, ovals, and cones.
As useful and practical today as it was when first published well over a century ago, Light and Shade provides beginning and advanced art students with valuable insights into effective drawing and sketching.
Light and Shade: A Classic Approach to Three-Dimensional Drawing
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Light and Shade: A Classic Approach to Three-Dimensional Drawing
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Overview
An art historian noted for her authoritative reference works, Merrifield clearly demonstrates the principles of light and shade by revealing the effects of common daylight, sunshine, and candle or artificial light on geometrical solids. Her simple explanations are accompanied by illustrations of cubes, prisms, pyramids, cylinders, spheres, ovals, and cones.
As useful and practical today as it was when first published well over a century ago, Light and Shade provides beginning and advanced art students with valuable insights into effective drawing and sketching.
Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9780486139883 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | Dover Publications |
| Publication date: | 04/17/2012 |
| Series: | Dover Art Instruction |
| Sold by: | Barnes & Noble |
| Format: | eBook |
| Pages: | 64 |
| File size: | 4 MB |
Read an Excerpt
Light and Shade
A Classic Approach to Three-Dimensional Drawing
By Mary P. Merrifield
Dover Publications, Inc.
Copyright © 2005 Dover Publications, Inc.All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-0-486-13988-3
CHAPTER 1
LESSON I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
FORM is developed by means of light and shade; without these every object would appear flat.
All colour is a deprivation of light; therefore, if several objects of the same shape, some of which are coloured and some white, are situated similarly with regard to the light, the white objects will be lighter than the coloured ones.
Every solid opaque body has one part on which the light is brightest, and one part on which the shade is strongest, the other parts being of an intermediate tint.
The intermediate tint is called the middle tint, because it is equally removed from the extreme light and the extreme dark.
The intermediate tint may be subdivided into the half light, the middle tint, and the half dark. (Fig. 1, P1.1.)
The middle tints occupy the largest portion of the object, the extreme light and dark being limited to a very small space.
The brightest part of an object will be that on which the light falls directly.
The brightest part is called the high light.
The shadow side of an object will be that which is opposite to the light.
The shadow side is not synonymous with the shadow.
The extreme dark of a rectilinear object will be found generally close to the extreme or high light.
The shadow thrown by a white object is darker than the darkest side of that object.
In an opaque solid bounded by circular lines the extreme light will be found a little distance from the edge on the light side, and the extreme dark a, little distance from the edge on the dark or shadow side, while on the intermediate part, the shade will melt gradually into the light.
CHAPTER 2LESSON II. OF THE LIGHT UNDER WHICH OBJECTS ARE VIEWED, AND OF THEIR SHADOWS.
Objects are viewed under three kinds of light, namely, sunlight, ordinary daylight, and artificial light; and the effect varies according as they are seen under one or other of these lights.
As a general rule, the brighter the light the stronger and more distinct is the shade; in ordinary daylight the shadows are less distinct, and in dull weather they are scarcely visible.
When lighted by a single light, opaque objects can 11 be illuminated on one part only, the space situated on the side not lighted is said to be in shadow; the space on the ground, or on another object from which the light is obscured by an opaque solid, is called the shadow.
Shadows are analogous in form to the body by which they are cast; thus the shadow of a perpendicular is a straight line, the shadow of a rectilinear figure is rectilinear, that of a sphere is circular.
The shape of shadows is discernible only on their outlines, and is modified by the form of the surface on which they are thrown.
In sunlight the source of illumination (the sun) is at so great a distance, and of such magnitude in comparison with the objects lighted by it, that the luminous rays which fall on our globe are supposed to be parallel, and as such they are always to be treated in daylight scenes. The higher the source of light, the shorter will be the shadows; thus, at morning and evening, when the sun is low, the shadows are long, while as the sun rises the shadows become shorter, and are shortest at noon. In summer, when the sun attains greater altitude, the shadows at noon are not so long as at the same hour in winter, when the rays strike more obliquely and the sun is nearer to the horizon. There are certain places within the tropics at which the sun is sometimes vertical, so that if at noon a stick be set upright in the ground it will cast no shadow.
Where several straight lines are parallel to each other the shadows thrown by these lines upon a horizontal plane will also be parallel to each other, and the perspective representations of these shadows will converge towards the same accidental points as the perspective representations of the lines themselves. (See Lesson XV.)
If the shadow thrown by a solid object is intercepted by other objects, such as a fallen tree or pillar, a wall, or a house, it is carried along the surface of these objects, and is terminated by the ray which, proceeding from the seat of light, touches in its passage to the ground the upper edge of the body which throws the shadow. In Fig. 2, P1. 1, the shadow of the cylinder or tower is cast first upon the ground, then, ascending the wall of the house, it crosses the roof, where it terminates. The oblique line, A B, shows the direction of the ray of light.
The perspective of shadows will be treated in a subsequent lesson.
From artificial light the rays diverge equally all round.
If more than one artificial light be present, objects will have as many shadows as there are lights; and, as these shadows frequently intersect each other, it becomes very difficult to distinguish their true shape, and, consequently, to represent them. The same thing takes place, but in a lesser degree, in the day-time, when the light is admitted by more than one window; in the latter case, however, the light being more equally diffused, the effects of the cross-lights are not so palpable to the casual observer. Objects seen under these circumstances also want that lucid and intelligent arrangement of light and shade, and breadth of effect, which are essential to pictorial representations. It will be understood, then, that when objects are to be represented in light and shade, they must be illumined by one light only.
We have now to speak of the situation of the light. When the sun is the illuminating body, it is always above our heads, and the shadows are in consequence thrown downwards.
This, which is the natural, is also the most agreeable disposition of the light, as well as the most convenient. It is imitated by painters, who close up the lower windows of their studios, admitting the light only from above.
In an out-door effect the sky will be the brightest part, in an in-door effect the brightest light will fall on the floor.
Independently of its height, the situation of the sun with regard to the spectator is continually changing. It may be on the right hand or the left, before or behind him. If it be behind him, the illuminated side of objects will be presented to him, and will want shadow. If it be before him, the shadow side of the objects will be next to him, and the picture will want light. If, on the other hand, the place of the sun be more or less either on the right or the left, there will not only be bright light and extreme shade, but a breadth of middle tint, the most favourable conditions for making a picture. It will be understood that these remarks do not apply to landscape painting, particularly with respect to sunsets, in which the light is in the sky, and the shadow side of objects is turned towards the spectator.
From the above observations it will be apparent that the choice of a proper light is a subject of great importance to the painter.
The terms breadth and repose have been mentioned in these pages, and, as they frequently occur in works of art, it will be proper to explain them.
By breadth is meant the introduction into the picture of large masses of light and shade, in contradistinction to a number of small lights, which distract the attention of the spectator, and break up the effect.
When the masses of light and shade are harmoniously arranged and balanced, the effect of repose is obtained.
The preceding observations should be carefully studied, and their truth tested by close observation. When they are become tolerably familiar, the student may proceed to draw from models. These should be white in colour and without polish. The most simple of the geometrical solids should be selected, the rectilinear figures first, and then the curvilinear. Of this kind are the cube, the parallelopiped, the prism, the pyramid, the cylinder, the sphere, the egg, and the cone. As these solids are not supposed to be suspended in the air something must be placed under them by way of ground. The ground may be either white, of a middle tint, or dark, but it should not have a shining surface. As the models are not placed in- a vacuum, they must have a background placed at a small distance behind them. This, also, may be either white, of a middle tint, or dark, but the surface should be of one uniform colour, and not polished. Neither should it be creased or folded. A sheet of white pasteboard, or tinted drawing board, or a black board will answer the purpose extremely well. The colour of the background should be frequently changed, and the same model should be set before different backgrounds, and the different effects carefully noted, until the student is become so familiar with them that he could draw them almost from memory.
In order to study the effects of light and shade which actually belong to the model from those which are produced by reflection, before beginning to draw, another precaution is necessary, namely, to remove to a distance all objects that will either intercept the light from the model, or cast reflection upon it.
Let the student now proceed to study from the solid object, and "set the model"—in the present case a cube —in the manner described in the lesson, then taking his seat at a moderate distance, let him, after a careful examination, make as good a copy of it as he can, and with as much expedition. He must recollect that "time and tide wait for no man," that while he is thinking what to do the sun is travelling his daily journey from east to west, and that the shadows change more rapidly than he can transfer them to paper. Two hours is the utmost limit of time for one sitting before a model; less would be better. If the drawing is interrupted before it is completed, or if it could not be completed at one sitting, when again resumed it should be at the same hour, and under the same arrangements with regard to the admission of the light and the disposal of the background.
From the foregoing observations it will be seen that it is very desirable to acquire an expeditious manner of working; and, in drawing from models, it is better to aim at obtaining a good effect than at making a highly finished drawing. If a true effect be produced, the drawing may be worked up at leisure, or, what would he infinitely preferable, the original may be left, and a finished copy made from it. As a general rule, a sketch from nature should never he touched after being completed.
The materials may be tinted cartridge paper of various colours, the smooth side of which should be used, and black and white chalks. Chalk is preferable to pencil because it does not shine.
CHAPTER 3LESSON III. THE CUBE.
Fig. 3, Pl.1. In this figure the cube is placed on an ordinary table, in a direct line with the course of the light, which enters by one window from which the sunshine is excluded, the lowest edge of the window being a few inches above the table. The cube stands upon a piece of dark common pasteboard. A sheet of white drawing board is set up at some little distance behind to serve as a background. This is one of the most simple conditions, as regards light and shade, in which, an object can be represented. The side next the light is that which is most exposed to its influence, it is therefore in high light; the top is less brilliantly illuminated than the side, though it still receives light from the window. The background is of a light middle tint. The square side next the eye is in half shadow, or half dark, the ground on which the cube stands is still darker, while the shadow thrown on it by the cube is darkest of all; this is therefore the extreme dark. It will be observed that the extreme light and the extreme dark make up but very small portions of the picture, the principal part consisting of the middle tints. So far the gradations of light and shade are evident even to an unpractised eye. I now proceed to notice the gradations which are less evident, and which, in fact, are rarely discernible, except by an eye to which long observation has given greater powers of perception. It is the power of distinguishing these minor, and, to the casual observer, imperceptible gradations, which constitutes the artist, and these powers are always most clearly developed in those who are the closest observers of nature.
Pupils at first find much difficulty in distinguishing them, even when pointed out by their instructors, but their powers of observation may be much strengthened and improved by the knowledge of a few simple laws of optics.
We have said that nature has no other means of distinguishing solid objects than by light and shade; a light object, for instance, is contrasted by a dark, and a dark by a light one. Now, let us see how this bears upon the subject before us. The white background behind the white cube is so nearly of the same tint as the model, that were it not for another law of optics we should have some difficulty in relieving the cube from its ground. It is found, therefore, that:—
In order to give greater force to a brilliant light, it appears to be bounded by dark, which though apparent to the eye, is, in fact, known not to exist, but which must have a place in the picture in order to give a true representation of the object. Let the reader now look at Fig 3. The background, which we have said was white, is here represented shaded. The dark tint against the high light does not really exist, but is the effect of contrast with the bright light. To prove this, let the student hold up his pencil (first shutting one eye) in such a manner as to hide the high light, when the dark on the background which met it will be no longer visible, but on removing the pencil it will again appear. Now let us look at the shadow side of the cube. Here also there is a shadow on the background, but in the first case the dark is brought closely and firmly up to the light, whereas, in the present instance, a light appears between the dark side of the cube, and the shadow on the background. In the first case, the dark is an optical illusion, in the second, the light is an optical illusion. The second case is to be proved like the first, by holding up the pencil so as to hide the cube, when it will be seen that the background is, in fact, of the same uniform tint, and that the light and shade are the effect of contrast; the light on the background, next the dark side of the cube is necessary to give it relief, and separate it from the ground. Although these effects do not really exist in nature, they must form a part of every true pictorial representation of it; for the great object in painting is not to represent objects as they really are, but as they appear to the eye to be. This may be further illustrated by reference to the law of contrast discovered by M. Chevreul, namely, "When two tones of the same colour are juxtaposed, the light will appear lighter, and the dark darker than it really is."
Let the pupil now take two sheets of paper of the same colour, but of different tones, that is, one darker than the other, and cut them in two. Let the light be called A.A' (Fig. 4), and the dark B.B'. Place A.'B.' close together on a white wall, an A.B. at a little distance on the same wall, A.' near A., and B. near B'. On retiring to a distance it will be seen that A.' appears lighter than A., and B.' darker than B., and that the contrast is greatest at the edge where A.' and B.' join. But this is not all, the white background will appear of a more brilliant white between and around B.B.' than in the corresponding space between A.A.'
Returning now to the cube, it will be observed that the dark on the side next the eye is most intense where it meets the light. This gives firmness and great relief.
The moonlight sketch, Fig. 1, P1. 2, which was from recollection, will afford another illustration of the effect of contrast. When the finger was held so as to conceal the moon, at the time the effect was observed, the cloud on the horizon was seen to be of a uniform tint, instead of being darkest under the moon, as represented in the sketch, but the dark tint appeared again on removing the finger.
We shall here give another illustration, for which we are also indebted to M. Chevreul, of the effects produced by contrast. Fig. 2 represents ten gradations between white and black. Each gradation occupies the same space, and the darkest part of each, shade appears to be at the edges where the darker unite with the lighter shades. If a hole be cut in a piece of paper the size and shape of one of the gradations, and laid upon it, it will be seen to be all of the same tone or degree of darkness; the apparent darkness at the edge is therefore merely the effect of contrast. There is also another peculiarity attending this figure, namely, that it appears to represent a grooved surface like that of a fluted pillar. It is necessary to be aware of the deceptive nature of these appearances in order to represent them correctly.
(Continues...)
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Table of Contents
The PrefaceIntroductory Remarks
Lesson 1 General Principles
Lesson 2 Of the Light under which objects are viewed, and of their Shadows
Lessons 3-7 The Cube
Lesson 8 Aerial Perspective
Lesson 9 The Prism and Inclined Planes
Lesson 10 The Pyramid
Lesson 11 The Cylinder
Lesson 12 The Sphere
Lesson 13 The Oval, or Egg Shape
Lesson 14 The Cone
Lesson 15 The Perspective of Shadows
Conclusion