Maps and Civilization: Cartography in Culture and Society, Third Edition / Edition 3

by Norman J. W. Thrower

Overview

In this concise introduction to the history of cartography, Norman J. W. Thrower charts the intimate links between maps and history from antiquity to the present day. A wealth of illustrations, including the oldest known map and contemporary examples made using Geographical Information Systems (GIS), illuminate the many ways in which various human cultures have interpreted spatial relationships.
The third edition of Maps and Civilization incorporates numerous revisions, features new material throughout the book, and includes a new alphabetized bibliography.
 
Praise for previous editions of Maps and Civilization:
“A marvelous compendium of map lore. Anyone truly interested in the development of cartography will want to have his or her own copy to annotate, underline, and index for handy referencing.”—L. M. Sebert, Geomatica

Product Details

ISBN-13:	9780226799742
Publisher:	University of Chicago Press
Publication date:	10/15/2008
Edition description:	Third Edition
Pages:	362
Sales rank:	741,996
Product dimensions:	6.00(w) x 9.00(h) x 1.00(d)

About the Author

Norman J. W. Thrower is professor emeritus of geography at the University of California, Los Angeles. His other books include Standing on the Shoulders of Giants: A Longer View of Newton and Halley, Sir Francis Drake and the Famous Voyage, 1577–1580, and Original Survey and Land Subdivision.

Read an Excerpt

Maps & Civilization

Cartography in Culture and Society

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By Norman J. W. Thrower

The University of Chicago Press

Copyright © 2008 Norman J. W. Thrower
All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-0-226-79974-2

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CHAPTER 1

Introduction: Maps of Preliterate Peoples

As a branch of human endeavor, cartography has a long and interesting history that well reflects the state of cultural activity, as well as the perception of the world, in different periods. Early maps from great civilizations were attempts to depict earth distributions graphically in order to better visualize them; like those of so-called "primitive" peoples, these maps served specific needs. Viewed in its development through time, the map details the changing thought of the human race, and few works seem to be such an excellent indicator of culture and civilization. In the modern world the map performs a number of significant functions: as a necessary tool in the comprehension of spatial phenomena; a most efficient device for the storage of information, including three-dimensional data; and a fundamental research aid permitting an understanding of distributions and relationships not otherwise known or imperfectly understood. A knowledge of maps and their contents is not automatic; it must 'be learned, and it is important for educated people to know about maps even though they may not be called upon to make them. The map is one of a select group of communications media without which, McLuhan has suggested, "the world of modern science and technologies would hardly exist."

Though technological in nature, cartography, like architecture, has attributes of both a scientific and an artistic pursuit, a dichotomy not satisfactorily reconciled in all presentations. Some maps are successful in their display of material but scientifically barren, while in others an important message may be obscured because of the poverty of the representation. An amazing variety of maps exist to serve many different purposes, and it is one of the goals of this book to acquaint the reader with some of these forms. Of course, within the compass of a small work it is possible to give only selected examples of various types of maps, but this selection includes a number of landmark maps in the story of cartography. It seemed better to deal with a limited number of maps in detail than to offer encyclopedic coverage of a larger number without much in-depth discussion. Specific map characteristics will be brought out in reference to particular examples, which are drawn from both earlier and contemporary sources. This work is not a treatise on mapmaking but rather one on map appreciation and map intelligence.

The volume may also be thought of as a sourcebook of cartographic forms or as an anthology of maps, charts, and plans that, like all anthologies, reflects the taste and predilections of the collector. It may also be likened to a book of reproductions of works of art, in the sense that the illustrations—even with the accompanying verbal commentary—cannot really do justice to the originals. In this case, the illustrations are in black and white, many are reduced in scale, and some are merely fragments, reinterpretations, or details. But they will have served their purpose well if people are encouraged by reading this book to look at maps critically, to comprehend their strengths and limitations, to use them more intelligently, and perhaps even to collect them. While no substitute for the map library, this book will ideally lead to the better use of such facilities. Neither is this work a substitute for the rich professional literature of cartography upon which it draws, but it may lead the serious reader to consult additional resources.

Cartography cuts across disciplinary lines to a greater extent than most subjects. No one person or area of study is capable of embracing the whole field, and, like workers in other activities, cartographers are becoming more and more specialized, with the advantages and disadvantages this process inevitably brings. "Nevertheless," Hartshorne has asserted, "workers in other fields commonly concede without question that the geographer is an expert on maps.... This is the one technique on which they most often come to him for assistance." Accordingly it is incumbent upon all geographers to understand something about cartography as well as the particular branch of geography in which they specialize. In spite of the notable contributions of a few to cartography, many geographers do not possess enough knowledge of maps to serve as advisors to those in other fields who may consult them. This book is intended to help fill this need as well as to promote the use and enjoyment of maps. It is written especially for the nonspecialist who wishes or needs to know something of maps.

One of the main themes of this book is that the modern map can be well designed, even a thing of beauty and elegance, and that earlier workers in the field had no monopoly on this aspect of cartography. Moreover, the view of this author is that, contrary to the opinion of some, the study of cartography has become increasingly exciting in the last century and a half through the application of modern technology. In recent years the map as a medium of communication has been enriched by new data and has become capable of conveying its messages in increasingly interesting ways. At the same time, the visual qualities have been vastly improved through the development of new techniques, materials, and processes. However, in the present work, some aspects of contemporary cartography are treated more briefly than their importance suggests because individual books in the field cover such topics as map transformations, computer mapping, and gravity models. The emphasis here will be on landmarks of geocartography.

Of course mapping is not confined to the representation of the earth; other phenomena such as the human brain have been mapped. The principles and methods of cartography have a universality that makes them applicable to the mapping of extraterrestrial, as well as terrestrial, bodies. In particular, lunar mapping, which is not a new activity, will receive some attention here. But the main emphasis will be on what is called geocartography. This term should come into greater use as we receive and process more detailed information about bodies other than the earth. As space technology develops, it may be desirable to distinguish between extraterrestrial and terrestrial mapping as we now distinguish between astronomy and geography.

Previously there was general agreement on the meaning of the geographical term map, but because of a wider acceptance of images under this rubric, the borderland between picture and map has recently become blurred. This will be pointed out subsequently in relation to modern imagery. According to the definition used by earlier peoples—and still used by purists—a map is a representation of all or a part of the earth, drawn to scale, usually on a plane surface. A wide variety of materials has been used in cartography, including stone, wood, metal, parchment, cloth, paper, and film. The words map and chart appear to derive from materials: the Latin word carta denotes a formal document on parchment or paper, and mappa indicates cloth. In geography today, the term chart is most often applied to maps of the sea and coasts, or at least to maps used by sailors and aviators. Map is a broader term in modern usage, referring more particularly to a representation of land, while plan is a representation of a small area from above.

To illustrate some of the foregoing ideas, let us examine the cartographic works of peoples in prehistoric times and of preliterate—so-called "primitive," "native," and indigenous (non-Western)—societies of a much more recent date. That such groups engage in mapping attests to the basic importance of cartography to humankind. What has been called the oldest known plan of an inhabited site is the Bedolina map from northern Italy, ca. 2000–1500 B.C. (fig. 1.1). Analysis of this rock carving suggests that it was "engraved" in different stages with pictorial features—human figures, animals, and houses in side view—added later, possibly in the Iron Age, to a Bronze Age plan. Still under debate are the meanings of its more abstract symbols: rectangles filled with regularly spaced points (fields bounded by stone walls?); irregular, single connecting lines (streams and irrigation channels?); and small circles (wells?) with single central points. Whatever the interpretation, the original petroglyph appears to be a detailed plan of an actual area and to represent a "progression" from symbolic to pictorial form. Many other terrestrial and celestial "map" designs in rock art from different parts of the world, whether known or yet to be discovered, would repay careful study by archaeologists, anthropologists, and ethnographers as well as by historians and geographers.

Coming closer to our time, the Pacific Islanders, plotting their courses from island to island, spread over a very large area before Europeans reached the largest of oceans. Again, disciplines beyond history and geography are needed to unravel this story. Among the various homing or way-finding devices used by these interisland navigators are the stars, signs in the seas, land-indicating birds, and "charts." Stick charts from the Marshall Islands illustrate what might be called, for want of a better term, "native" cartography. These charts are generally made of narrow strips of the center ribs of palm fronds lashed together with cord made from locally grown fiber plants. The arrangement of the sticks indicates the pattern of swells or wave masses caused by winds, rather than of currents, as was formerly thought to be the case. The positions of islands are marked approximately by shells (often cowries) or coral. The charts vary considerably in size but are usually between eighteen and twenty-four inches square.

The method for using these charts was elicited from natives of the islands with considerable difficulty because their navigational methods were closely guarded secrets. Distances between the various islands of the Marshall group are not great, but because they are low atolls, the islands can only be seen from a few miles away from an outrigger canoe. To locate an island that is not visible, the native navigator observes the relationship between the main waves, driven by the trade winds, and the secondary waves (reflecting or converging) resulting from the presence of an island. If a certain angle exists between the two sets of waves, a choppy interference pattern is established. When such a zone is reached, the canoe is placed parallel to this pattern with the prow in the direction of the waves of greater amplitude, which give a landward indication. These often complex wave patterns can be illustrated on the stick charts, which may be carried on the canoe. In addition, the navigators lie down in their craft to feel the effect of the waves.

Three major types of charts are found in the Marshall Islands, namely rebbelib, meddo, and mattang. The rebbelib (fig. 1.2) is a chart of a large part of the Marshall group, which consists of about thirty atolls and single islands over a distance of approximately six hundred sea miles northwest-southeast and about half that distance northeast-southwest. Although the spatial relationships between the islands are only approximated on the stick charts, these locations can be recognized by referring to modern navigational charts of the area. The meddo is a sectional chart of part of the island group; it may be one of a series of charts, and its scale allows more detail to be shown than is possible on the rebbelib. Unlike the others, the third type of Marshallese stick chart, the mattang, is not carried on canoes but is used for instructional purposes. A mattang is a highly conventionalized, often symmetrical, chart that does not necessarily show an actual geographical location. It provides a summary of information about wave patterns that might have wide application, although a full understanding of its characteristics may be possessed only by its maker.

In the Marshallese stick charts we can see ingenious, independent, and spontaneous solutions to various cartographic problems. The materials from which they are made (palm fronds, shells, and so on) are available within the limited material resource base of the Islanders, reminding us that not all maps are documents printed on paper. The stick charts illustrate spatial phenomena of infinite importance to the native interisland navigator but of little significance to most other people. Rebbelib and meddo charts indicate the need for maps of different scales: the rebbelib shows a broad area and uses a small scale, while the meddo illustrates a more restricted locality on a larger scale. In the use of the mattang, we recognize the necessity of learning to read charts or maps to understand the relationship between cartographic conventions and reality. Furthermore, the desire to conceal a body of geographical information and its cartographic expression, as exemplified by the reluctance of the Marshall Islanders to share their techniques, is a recurring and continuing theme in the history of mapmaking.

The Marshall Islanders were by no means unique, and when the Europeans came to other areas new to them they usually encountered populations with a superb knowledge of their local regions. Thus when Christopher Columbus arrived at Guanahani (which he renamed San Salvador) in the Bahamas in October 1492, he learned by signs from the inhabitants that there was a larger island to the south: Cuba. Later, when the Spanish reached the Aztec civilization of Central America, they found a well-developed cartography of the area. Hernán Cortés reported that in 1520 he received a chart from Montezuma that showed a large part of the Mexican coast on which were delineated estuaries, rivers, and bays. Such maps were sometimes taken to Europe and information from them used in the compilation of published maps. For example, a map of Mexico City with an inset of the coast of Mexico that was printed in Germany in 1524 apparently owes a good deal to indigenous maps of the area. Such maps were different from anything the Europeans had seen before, but most of these manuscripts have perished and their contribution was seldom acknowledged.

However, a map from Mexico that shows little European influence is the frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza, now at the Bodleian Library at Oxford. This work was commissioned by Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza, ca. 1547, although the employment of this name dates only from the late eighteenth century. Mendoza was interested in collecting indigenous cultural information on New Spain for transmission to Europe, where the Codex was acquired by Richard Hakluyt from André Thevet, whose name appears on the manuscript, along with other later annotations. Details of the work were published from the seventeenth century on. An edition using modern methods of color reproduction appeared in 1938 and a new edition in 1992 (fig. 1.3).

The map depicts the founding of Mexico City (Tenochtitlán) with an eagle, the Aztec symbol for the sun, perched on a cactus in the center and the seal of the city below. The rectangle with diagonals is a stylized plan of the settlement and its waterways, the home of some 150,000 people at the time of the conquest. Attempts have been made to interpret the plan and the pictorial symbols in its four divisions, but much of this is speculation. The figures within the quadrants are believed to be the ten founders of the city and the structure at the top center the one-hundred-foot-high temple that greatly impressed the conquistadores. To the right center is a rack for the skulls of sacrificial victims. Below the rectangle are idealized scenes from the Aztec conquests, and the border is a continuous calendric count of fifty-one years, each compartment representing one year in groups of thirteen with repeating symbols. The Aztecs devised a very sophisticated calendar, and the map is not a snapshot in time but a representation of events that occurred over a number of years in "what was to become one of the greatest pre-Columbian cities ever to flourish in the Western Hemisphere." To the Aztecs, the capital was the center of the cosmos, with the surrounding canals representing the four cardinal directions. Other Aztec maps of more rural areas—such as that of the Tepetlaoztoc district—depict hills, roads, streams, forests, and pyramids with place-names in hieroglyphics and are thus transitional between the cartography of preliterate and literate peoples.

Some study has been devoted to indigenous Mexican maps and those of the Inuit (Eskimo) peoples of the north. But until quite recently maps of the Indians of what is now the United States (Amerindians) had received much less attention. This situation is changing with the establishment of research programs devoted to Amerindian mapping, a distinguished lecture series on the topic, and an exhibition with a number of examples. The analysis of spatial information provided by non-Europeans is problematic because of the use of caricature and exaggeration as well as uncertainty about what the local population might consider important to map.

(Continues...)

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Excerpted from Maps & Civilization by Norman J. W. Thrower. Copyright © 2008 Norman J. W. Thrower. Excerpted by permission of The University of Chicago Press.
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Table of Contents

Preface

ONE 
Introduction: Maps of Preliterate Peoples

TWO
Maps of Classical Antiquity

THREE
Early Maps of East and South Asia

FOUR
Cartography in Europe and Islam in the Middle Ages

FIVE
The Rediscovery of Ptolemy and Cartography in Renaissance Europe

SIX
Cartography in the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment

SEVEN
Diversification and Development in the Nineteenth Century

EIGHT
Modern Cartography: Official and Quasi-Official Maps

NINE
Modern Cartography: Private and Institutional Maps

APPENDIX A
Selected Map Projections

APPENDIX B
Short List of Isograms

APPENDIX C
Glossary

Notes
Illustration Sources
Bibliography
Index