Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction of Analytical Chemistry 1
1.1 What is Analytical Chemistry 2
1.2 Steps in the Development of an Analytical Method 5
1.3 Classification of Quantitative Analytical Methods 7
1.3.1 Chemical Analysis 7
1.3.2 Instrumental Analysis 8
1.4 Principles of Volumetric Titration 8
1.4.1 Basic Terms 9
1.4.2 Requirements of Titration Reactions 9
1.4.3 Classification of Titration Processes 10
1.4.4 Primary Standards and Standard Solutions 10
1.4.5 Basic Apparatus in Chemical Analyses 11
1.5 Calculations in Volumetric Titration 15
1.5.1 Preparation of Standard Solutions 15
1.5.2 Titration Results 18
Chapter 2 Data Analysis 22
2.1 Error and Classification 23
2.1.1 Accuracy and Precision 23
2.1.2 Errors and Deviation 24
2.1.3 Systematic and Random Errors 25
2.2 Distribution of Random Errors 26
2.2.1 Frequency Distribution 27
2.2.2 Normal Distribution 28
2.2.3 Predicting the Probability of Random Errors-Area under Gaussian Curve 30
2.3 Statistical Data Treatment 31
2.3.1 Estimation of Population Mean (μ) and Population Standard Deviation (σ) 31
2.3.2 Confidence Interval for Population Mean 34
2.3.3 Statistical Aids to Hypothesis Testing 37
2.3.4 Detection of Gross Errors 42
2.4 Propagation of Error 43
2.4.1 Systematic Errors 43
2.4.2 Random Errors (Standard Deviation) 43
2.4.3 Maximum Errors (ER) 44
2.4.4 Distribution of Errors 44
2.5 Significant Figure Convention 45
2.5.1 Significant Figures 45
2.5.2 Numerical Rounding in Calculations 47
Chapter 3 Acid-Base Equilibrium 50
3.1 Equilibrium Constants and Effect of Electrolytes 51
3.2 Acid-base Reactions and Equilibria 53
3.2.1 Acid and Base-Brønsted Concept 53
3.2.2 Dissociation of Acid or Base and Acid-base Equilibria 55
3.2.3 Magnitude of Dissociating Species at a Given pH x-values 57
3.3 Solving Equilibrium Calculations Using pH Calculations as an Example 61
3.3.1 General Approaches (Systematic Approaches) 61
3.3.2 pH Calculations 64
3.4 Buffer Solutions 71
3.4.1 pH Calculations of Buffer Solutions 71
3.4.2 Buffer Capacity 72
3.4.3 Preparation of Buffers 74
Chapter 4 Acid-Base Titration 78
4.1 Acid/Base Indicators 79
4.1.1 Principle 79
4.1.2 Examples 80
4.1.3 Titration Errors 82
4.1.4 Factors Influencing Performance 82
4.2 Titration Curves and Selection of Indicators 83
4.2.1 Strong Acids (Bases) 86
4.2.2 Monoprotic Acids (Bases) 86
4.2.3 Strong and Weak Acids (Bases) 91
4.2.4 Polyfunctional Weak Acids (Bases) 92
4.2.5 Mixture of Weak Acids (Bases) 95
4.3 Titration Error Calculations 95
4.3.1 Strong Acids (Bases) 95
4.3.2 Monoprotic Weak Acids (Bases) 96
4.3.3 Polyfunctional Acids (Bases) 97
4.4 Preparation of Standard Solutions 98
4.4.1 Standard Acid Solutions 98
4.4.2 Standard Base Solutions 99
4.4.3 The Carbonate Error 100
4.5 Examples of Acid-base Titrations 101
4.5.1 Determination of Total Alkalinity 101
4.5.2 Determination of Nitrogen 102
4.5.3 Determination of Boric Acid 103
4.6 Acid-base Titrations in Non-aqueous Solvents 104
4.6.1 Non-aqueous Solvents 104
4.6.2 Examples of Non-aqueous Titrations 105
Chapter 5 Complexation Reaction and Complexometric Titration 108
5.1 Complexes and Formation Constants 109
5.1.1 Formation Constants 109
5.1.2 Concentration of MLn in Complexation Equilibria 111
5.1.3 Ethylenediamineteiraacetic Acid (EDTA) and Metal EDTA Complexes 113
5.1.4 Side Reaction Coefficients and Conditional Formation Constants in Complexation Reactions 115
5.2 Metallochromic Indicators 122
5.2.1 How a Metallochromic Indicator Works 122
5.2.2 Color Transition Point pM ((pM)t) for Metallochromic Indicators 123
5.2.3 Frequently Used Metallochromic Indicators 125
5.3 Titration Curves and Titration Errors 126
5.3.1 Titration Curves 126
5.3.2 Titration Errors 128
5.3.3 pH Control in Complexometric Titrations 129
5.4 Selective Titrations of Metal Ions in the Presence of Multiple Metal Ions 130
5.4.1 Selective Titration by Regulating pH 131
5.4.2 Selective Titration Using Masking Reagents 133
5.5 Applications of Complexometric Titrations 137
5.5.1 Buffer Selection in Complexometric Titrations 137
5.5.2 Titration Methods and Applications 138
5.5.3 Preparation of Standard Solutions 142
Chapter 6 Redox Equilibrium and Titration 146
6.1 Standard Electrode Potentials, Formal Potentials and Redox Equilibria 147
6.1.1 Standard Electrode Potentials 147
6.1.2 The Nernst Equation and Formal Potentials 149
6.1.3 Factors Affecting the Formal Potential 150
6.1.4 The Equilibrium Constant of Redox Reaction 154
6.2 Factors Affecting the Reaction Rate 155
6.2.1 Concentrations 156
6.2.2 Temperature 157
6.2.3 Catalysts and Reaction Rate 157
6.2.4 Induced Reaction 157
6.3 Redox Titrations 158
6.3.1 Constructing Redox Titration Curves 158
6.3.2 Indicators 162
6.3.3 Auxiliary Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 164
6.4 Examples of Redox Titrations 165
6.4.1 Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4) 165
6.4.2 Potassium Dichromate (K2Cr2O7) 168
6.4.3 Iodine: Iodimetry and Iodometry 169
6.4.4 Potassium Bromatc (KBrO3) 173
6.4.5 Ceric Sulfate (Ce(SO4)2) 174
Chapter 7 Precipitation Equilibrium, Titration, and Gravimetry 177
7.1 Precipitation Equilibria and Solubility 178
7.1.1 Solubility of Precipitates in Pure Water 178
7.1.2 Ionic Strength and the Solubility of Precipitates 178
7.1.3 Common Ion and the Solubility of Precipitates 179
7.1.4 pH and the Solubility of Precipitates 179
7.1.5 Complexing Agents and the Solubility of Precipitates 182
7.2 Precipitation Titrations 184
7.2.1 Titration Curves 184
7.2.2 Examples of Methods Classified by Endpoint Indication 186
7.2.3 Preparation of Standard Solutions 189
7.3 Precipitation Gravimetry 190
7.3.1 Classification of Gravimetric Methods of Analysis 190
7.3.2 General Procedure and Requirements for Precipitation 190
7.3.3 Precipitate Formation 192
7.3.4 Obtaining High Purity Precipitates 193
7.3.5 Experimental Considerations 197
7.3.6 Examples of Organic Precipitating Reagents 200
Chapter 8 Spectrophotometry 206
8.1 Principle of Spectrochemical Analysis 207
8.1.1 Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation 207
8.1.2 Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Matter 208
8.1.3 Beer's Law, the Quantitative Principle of Light Absorption 213
8.1.4 Limitations to Beer's Law 216
8.2 Principles of Instrumentation 217
8.2.1 Instrumentation 217
8.2.2 Instrumental Errors in Absorption Measurement 226
8.3 Applications of Spectrophotometry 226
8.3.1 Single Component Analyses 226
8.3.2 Multicomponent Analyses 228
8.3.3 Spectrophotometric Titrations 230
8.3.4 Studies of Complex Formation in Solutions 231
8.3.5 Measurements of Dissociation Constants of Organic Acids/Bases 233
Chapter 9 Introduction to Analytical Separation 238
9.1 General Considerations of Separation Efficiency 239
9.2 Separation by Precipitation 241
9.2.1 Inorganic Precipitants 241
9.2.2 Organic Precipitants 242
9.2.3 Coprecipitation of Species in Trace Amounts for Separation 243
9.2.4 Improving the Selectivity of Precipitation Separation 244
9.3 Separation by Extraction 245
9.3.1 Principles for Liquid-liquid Extraction 245
9.3.2 Percent Extraction 247
9.3.3 Extraction of Inorganic Species 249
9.3.4 Other Extraction Methods 254
9.4 Separation by Ion Exchange 257
9.4.1 Ion Exchange Resins 257
9.4.2 Cross-linkage and Exchange Capacity 259
9.4.3 Ion Exchange Equilibria 260
9.4.4 Applications of Ion Exchange Separation 261
9.5 Separation by Chromatography 263
9.5.1 Classification 263
9.5.2 Chromatogram 264
9.5.3 Column Chromatography 265
9.5.4 Planar Chromatography 266
Chapter 10 Solving a Real Analytical Problem 271
10.1 Definition of the Analytical Problem 272
10.2 Literature Review 273
10.3 Choosing a Method 275
10.4 Developing and Evaluating the Method 276
10.4.1 Selectivity 276
10.4.2 Accuracy 277
10.4.3 Sensitivity and Linear Dynamic Range 279
10.5 Conclusion 280
Appendices 281
Appendix A References 281
Appendix B Indicators 283
Appendix C Activity Coefficients(γ) for Ions at 25°C 285
Appendix D Constants for Acid-base, Complexometric, Redox, and Precipitation Titrimetry 286
Appendix E Molecular Masses 299
Answers 302
Index 305
Periodic Table of the Elements 309
