Table of Contents
Preface to the Fourth Edition ix
Introduction 1
1 Some Theoretical Considerations 11
Race as a Modern Idea 13
Ideas, Ideologies, and Worldviews 15
The Social Reality of Race in America 17
On the Relationship Between Biology and Race 20
The Primordialists' Argument 21
Race as a Worldview: A Theoretical Perspective 24
Race and Ethnicity: Biology and Culture 27
Notes 33
2 The Etymology of the Term Race in the English Language 35
Notes 39
3 Antecedents of the Racial Worldview 41
The Age of European Exploration 41
The Rise of Capitalism and the Transformation of English Society 45
Social Organization and Values of Early Capitalism 50
English Ethnocentrism and the Idea of the Savage 52
English Nationalism and Social Values in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries 62
Hereditary Social Identity: The Lesson of Catholic Spain 65
Notes 70
4 The Growth of the English Ideology About Human Differences in America 73
Earliest Contacts 73
The Ensuing Conflicts 78
The Backing of God and Other Justifications for Conquest 81
The New Savages 85
Notes 90
5 The Arrival of Africans and Descent into Slavery 93
The First Africans 96
The Descent into Permanent Slavery 98
Was There Race Before Slavery? 102
Why the Preference for Africans? 105
The Problem of Labor 106
A Focus on Physical Differences and the Invention of Social Meanings 113
Notes 118
6 Comparing Slave Systems: The Significance of "Racial" Servitude 121
The Background Literature and the Issues of Slavery 122
The Nature of Slavery 126
A Brief History of Old World Slavery 127
Colonial Slavery Under the Spanish and Portuguese 139
Uniqueness of the English Experience of Slavery 145
The Significance of Slavery in the Creation of Race Ideology 149
Notes 153
7 Eighteenth-Century Thought and the Crystallization of the Ideology of Race 159
Social Values of the American Colonists 160
Nature's Hierarchy 164
Dominant Themes in North American Racial Beliefs 171
Anglo-Saxonism: The Making of a Biological Myth 173
And the American Dilemma Thomas Jefferson 177
Notes 186
8 Antislavery and the Entrenchment of a Racial Worldview 189
A Brief History of Antislavery Thought 190
The Proslavery Response 200
The Sociocultural Realities of Race and Slavery 203
The Priority of Race over Class 208
Notes 211
9 The Rise of Science and Scientific Racism 213
Early Classifications of Humankind 217
The Impact of Eighteenth-Century Classifications 222
Notes 225
10 Growth of the Racial Worldview in Nineteenth-Century America 227
Polygeny vs. Monogeny: The Debate over Race and Species 229
The Unnatural Mixture 237
Scientific Race Ideology in the Judicial System 239
White Supremacy 243
Immigrants and the Extension of the Race Hierarchy 245
Notes 248
11 Science and the Expansion of Race Ideology Beyond the United States 251
The Continuing Power of Polygenist Thinking 252
European Contributions to the Ideology of Race 253
Herbert Spencer and the Rise of Social Darwinism 256
The Measurement of Human Differences: Anthropometry 259
Typological Models of Races 261
The Measurement of Human Differences: Psychometrics 262
Extension of Race Ideology Overseas 265
Notes 267
12 Twentieth-Century Developments in Race Ideology 269
Social Realities of the Racial Worldview 269
Psychometrics: The Measuring of Human Worth by IQ 274
The Eugenics Movement 280
The Racial World of the Nazis 282
The Continuing Influence of Racial Ideology in Science 285
Notes 288
13 Changing Perspectives on Human Variation in Science 289
The Decline of the Idea of Race as Biology in Science 290
Physical Anthropology and Attempts to Transform the Meaning of Race 292
Population Genetics 296
Is There a Genetic Basis for Race? 299
The Ecological Perspective: Human Variations as Products of Adaptation 301
The Genetic Conception of Human Variation 303
Monogeny Reconsidered: The Nonproblem of Race Mixture 304
Notes 305
14 Dismantling the Folk Idea of Race: Transformations of an Ideology 307
The Meaning and Legacy of Race as Identity 309
The Quest for a Mixed-Race Census Category 316
Barack Obama and the Meaning of Race 318
The Future of the Racial Worldview 319
The Persistence of Racial Thinking 323
Notes 328
15 The Health and Other Consequences of the Racial Worldview 331
The Extent of Racial Health Disparities in the United States 331
The Causes of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities in the United States 334
Conclusion 348
Notes 348
References 351
Index 371
