Table of Contents
Preface xi
Part 1 Theories and Technologies
Chapter 1 Telegeoinformatics: Current Trends and Future Direction
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Architecture 5
1.3 Internet-Based GIS 7
1.4 Spatial Databases 17
1.5 Intelligent Query Analyzer (IQA) 18
1.6 Predictive Computing 20
1.7 Adaptation 21
1.8 Final Remarks 24
References 24
Chapter 2 Remote Sensing
2.1 Introductory Concepts 27
2.1.1 What is Remote Sensing? 27
2.1.2 The Evolution of Remote Sensing 29
2.1.3 Electromagnetic Radiation Principles in Remote Sensing 29
2.2 Remote Sensing Systems 30
2.3 Imaging Characteristics of Remote Sensing Systems 31
2.3.1 Spatial Resolution 31
2.3.2 Spectral Resolution 34
2.3.3 Radiometric Resolution 34
2.3.4 Temporal Resolution 35
2.4 Active Microwave Remote Sensing 35
2.4.1 What is Radar and IFSAR? 35
2.4.2 Introduction to SAR 36
2.4.3 Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (IFSAR) 37
2.4.4 LIDAR 40
2.5 Extraction of Thematic Information from Remotely Sensed Imagery 41
2.5.1 Visual Image Interpretation 41
2.5.2 Digital Image Classification 42
2.5.3 Image Classification Approaches 43
2.5.3.1 Supervised Classification 44
2.5.3.2 Unsupervised Classification 47
2.5.3.3 Hybrid Classification 48
2.5.4 Accuracy Assessment 49
2.5.5 Change Detection 50
2.6 Extraction of Metric Information from Remotely Sensed Imagery 51
2.6.1 Fundamentals of Photogrammetry 51
2.6.2 Photogrammetric Processing of Multiple Photographs 53
2.6.3 Softcopy Photogrammetry 56
2.6.3.1 Softcopy and Analytical Photogrammetry: a Comparison 57
2.6.3.2 Image Sources 57
2.6.3.3 Measurement System 58
2.6.3.4 Interior Orientation Comparison 59
2.6.3.5 Relative Orientation 59
2.6.3.6 Absolute Orientation 60
2.6.3.7 Exterior Orientation 60
2.6.3.8 Restitution 60
2.6.3.9 Orthophoto Generation 61
2.6.4 Direct Georeferencing 61
2.6.5 Photogrammetric Processing of Satellite Imagery 63
2.7 Remote Sensing in Telegeoinformatics 64
2.7.1 Imaging in Telegeoinformatics 64
2.7.2 Mobile Mapping Technology and Telegeoinformatics 64
References 66
Chapter 3 Positioning and Tracking Approaches and Technologies
3.1 Introduction 69
3.2 Global Positioning System 70
3.2.1 Definitions and System Components 70
3.2.2 GPS Signal Structure 72
3.2.3 GPS Observables and the Error Sources 74
3.2.3.1 Systematic Errors 74
3.2.3.1.1 Errors Due to Propagation Media 74
3.2.3.1.2 Selective Availability (SA) 75
3.2.3.2 Mathematical Models of Pseudorange and Carrier Phase 76
3.2.4 Positioning with GPS 78
3.2.4.1 Point vs. Relative Positioning 80
3.2.4.1.1 Point (Absolute) Positioning 80
3.2.4.1.2 Relative Positioning 80
3.2.4.1.3 DGPS Services 81
3.2.4.2 How Accurate is GPS? 83
3.2.5 GPS Instrumentation 84
3.2.6 GPS Modernization and Other Satellite Systems 85
3.3 Positioning Methods Based on Cellular Networks 86
3.3.1 Terminal-Centric Positioning Methods 88
3.3.2 Network-Centric and Hybrid Positioning Methods 90
3.3.3 GSM and UMTS Ranging Accuracy 94
3.4 Other Positioning and Tracking Techniques: An Overview 97
3.4.1 Inertial and Dead Reckoning Systems 97
3.4.1.1 What Are the Errors in Inertial Navigation? 99
3.4.2 Digital Compass 99
3.4.3 Additional Location Tracking Systems 99
3.4.3.1 Acoustic (Ultrasonic) Tracking 100
3.4.3.2 Magnetic Tracking 100
3.4.3.3 Optical Tracking 101
3.4.3.4 Pseudolite Tracking 102
3.5 Hybrid Systems 104
3.6 Summary 106
References 106
Chapter 4 Wireless Communications
4.1 Introduction 111
4.2 Overview of Wireless Systems 112
4.2.1 Classification of Wireless Networks 112
4.2.2 Wireless Network Architectures 115
4.2.2.1 Example of a Complex Architecture: GSM 117
4.2.2.2 Example of a Simple Architecture: IEEE 802.11 119
4.2.2.3 Example of an Ad Hoc Topology: Bluetooth 120
4.2.3 Issues and Challenges in Wireless Networks 121
4.3 Radio Propagation and Physical Layer Issues 122
4.3.1 Characteristics of the Wireless Medium 123
4.3.1.1 Large-Scale Fading 123
4.3.1.2 Small-Scale Fading 124
4.3.1.3 Telegeoinformatics and Radio Propagation 125
4.3.2 Modulation and Coding for Wireless Systems 125
4.4 Medium Access in Wireless Networks 126
4.4.1 Medium Access Protocols for Wireless Voice Networks 127
4.4.2 Medium Access Protocols for Wireless Data Networks 127
4.4.2.1 Random Access Protocols 127
4.4.2.2 Taking Turns Protocols 129
4.4.2.3 Reservation protocols 129
4.4.2.4 Impact on Telegeoinformatics 130
4.5 Network Planning, Design and Deployment 130
4.6 Wireless Network Operations 133
4.6.1 Radio Resources Management 133
4.6.2 Power Management 134
4.6.3 Mobility Management 136
4.6.3.1 Location Management 136
4.6.3.2 Handoff Management 137
4.6.4 Security 138
4.7 Conclusions and the Future 140
References 140
Part 2 Integrated Data and Technologies
Chapter 5 Location-Based Computing
5.1 Introduction 145
5.2 LBC Infrastructure 146
5.3 Location-Based Interoperability 147
5.3.1 Open Distributed Processing and LBC 148
5.3.2 Location Interoperability Protocols 150
5.3.2.1 Location Interoperability Forum (LIF) 151
5.3.2.2 Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) Location Framework 152
5.3.3 Location Specification Languages 153
5.3.3.1 Geography Markup Language 153
5.3.3.2 Point of Interest Exchange Language 156
5.4 Location-Based Data Management 157
5.5 Adaptive Location-Based Computing 159
5.5.1 Motivating Example 159
5.5.2 Metadata Management for Adaptive Location Based Computing 160
5.5.3 Pervasive Catalog Infrastructure 161
5.5.4 Querying Pervasive Catalog 163
5.6 Location-Based Routing as Adaptive LBC 164
5.7 Concluding Remarks 167
References 168
Chapter 6 Location-Based Services
6.1 Introduction 171
6.2 Types of Location-Based Services 171
6.3 What is Unique About Location-Based Services? 172
6.3.1 Integration With e-Business Solutions 174
6.4 Enabling Technologies 175
6.4.1 Spatial Data Management 175
6.4.2 Mobile Middleware 177
6.4.3 Open Interface Specifications 179
6.4.4 Network-Based Service Environment 180
6.4.5 Positioning Equipment 181
6.5 Market for Location-Based Services 182
6.5.1 Location-Based Service Market Players 183
6.6 Importance of Architecture and Standards 184
6.6.1 Java and Location-Based Services 185
6.7 Example Location-Based Services: 3-Phone J-Navi (Japan) 186
6.8 Conclusions 187
References 188
Chapter 7 Wearable Tele-Informatic Systems for Personal Imaging
7.1 Introduction 189
7.2 Humanistic Intelligence as a Basis for Intelligent Image Processing 190
7.3 Humanistic Intelligence 191
7.4 'WEARCOMP' as a Means of Realizing Humanistic Intelligence 192
7.4.1 Basic Principles of WearComp as a Tele-Informatic Device 192
7.4.2 The Six Basic Signal Flow Paths of WearComp 194
7.5 Where on the Body Should a Visual Tele-Informatic Device be Placed? 195
7.6 Telepointer: Wearable Hands-Free Completely Self Contained Visual Augmented Reality Without Headwear and Without any Infrastructural Reliance 196
7.6.1 No Need for Headwear or Eyewear if Only Augmenting 196
7.6.2 Computer Mediated Collaborative Living (CMCL) 199
7.7 Portable Personal Pulse Doppler Radar Vision System 201
7.7.1 Radar Vision: Background, Previous Work 202
7.7.2 Apparatus, Method, and Experiments 202
7.8 When Both the Camera and Display are Headword: Personal Imaging and Mediated Reality 205
7.8.1 Some Simple Illustrative Examples 205
7.8.2 Deconfigured Eyes: The Invention of the Reality Mediator 207
7.8.3 Personal Cyborg Logs (glogs) as a Tool for Photojournalists and Reporters 208
7.9 Personal Imaging for Location-Based Services 209
7.9.1 VideoOrbits Head Tracker 209
7.10 Reality Window Manager (RWM) 212
7.10.1 A Simple Example of RWM 213
7.10.2 The Wearable Face Recognizer as an Example of a Reality User Interface 214
7.11 Personal Telegeoinformatics: Blocking Spam with a Photonic Filter 215
7.12 Conclusion 216
References 219
Chapter 8 Mobile Augmented Reality
8.1 Introduction 221
8.1.1 Definition 221
8.1.2 Historical Overview 222
8.1.3 Mobile AR Systems 224
8.2 MARS: Promises, Applications, and Challenges 225
8.2.1 Applications 226
8.2.2 Challenges 232
8.3 Components and Requirements 233
8.3.1 Mobile Computing Platforms 233
8.3.2 Displays for Mobile AR 235
8.3.3 Tracking and Registration 239
8.3.4 Environmental Modeling 243
8.3.5 Wearable Input and Interaction Technologies 245
8.3.6 Wireless Communication and Data Storage Technologies 248
8.3.7 Summary: A Top-of-the-line MARS Research Platform 249
8.4 MARS UI Concepts 250
8.4.1 Information Display and Interaction Techniques 251
8.4.2 Properties of MARS UIs 253
8.4.3 UI Management 254
8.5 Conclusions 255
8.6 Acknowledgements 255
References 256
Part 3 Applications
Chapter 9 Emergency Response Systems
9.1 Overview of Emergency Response Systems 263
9.1.1 General Aspects 263
9.1.2 Structure of ERSs 264
9.2 State-of-the-Art ERSS 266
9.2.1 Strong Motion Instrumentation and ERSs for Earthquake Disaster in California 266
9.2.2 Strong Motion Instrumentation and ERSs for Earthquake Disasters in Japan 268
9.2.3 Strong Motion Instrumentation and ERSs in Taiwan 271
9.2.4 Strong Motion Instrumentation and ERSs in Other Countries 272
9.2.5 ERSs for Floods and other Disasters 272
9.2.6 New Method of Damage Reconnaissance 272
9.3 Examples of Developing ERSs for Earthquakes and Other Disasters 273
9.3.1 Facility Management in Nagoya University 273
9.3.2 Seismic Ground Motion Evaluation 274
9.3.3 Soil Modeling 276
9.3.4 Seismic Damage Estimation 277
9.3.5 Early Seismic Damage Estimation 278
9.3.6 Environmental Vibration Alarm 279
9.3.7 "Anshin-System": Intercommunication System for Earthquake Hazard and Disaster Information 279
9.4 Future Aspects of Emergency Response Systems 282
9.4.1 Implementation Issues 282
9.4.2 Developing New Technologies for ERSs 283
9.5 Concluding Remarks 284
References 284
Chapter 10 Location-Based Computing for Infrastructure Field Tasks
10.1 Introduction 287
10.2 LBC-Infra Concept 290
10.3 Technological Components of LBC-INFRA 291
10.3.1 Mobile and Wearable Computers 291
10.3.2 Spatial Databases 295
10.3.3 Positioning and Tracking Technologies 296
10.3.4 Wireless Communications 299
10.4 General Requirements of LBC-Infra 300
10.5 Interaction Patterns and Framework of LBC-Infra 301
10.5.1 Interaction Patterns of LBC-Infra 302
10.5.2 Interaction Framework 303
10.5.3 Interaction Levels of LBC-Infra 304
10.6 Prototype System and Case Study 306
10.6.1 Software of the Prototype 307
10.6.2 Hardware of the Prototype 309
10.6.3 Preliminary Evaluation of the Prototype System 309
10.7 Conclusions 311
References 311
Chapter 11 The Role of Telegeoinformatics in ITS
11.1 Introduction to Intelligent Transportation Systems 315
11.1.1 The ITS Vision and Functional Areas 315
11.1.2 The ITS Architecture 316
11.2 Telegeoinformatics Within ITS 318
11.2.1 ITS-Telegeoinformatics Technologies 319
11.2.2 ITS-Telegeoinformatics Applications: General Comments 320
11.2.3 The ITS-Telegeoinformatics Development Drivers 321
11.3 The Role of Positioning Systems In ITS 324
11.3.1 Taxonomy of Positioning Systems 324
11.3.2 Attributes of Positioning Systems 325
11.3.3 E911 and Positioning System Development 326
11.4 Geospatial Data for ITS 328
11.4.1 The Digital Map 328
11.4.2 Map Attribute Data 329
11.4.3 Map Display 330
11.4.4 Map-Aided Positioning 332
11.4.5 Navigable Road Map Databases 333
11.5 Communication Systems in ITS 335
11.5.1 Mobile Telephony Systems: GSM and SMS 335
11.5.2 Mobile Telephony Systems: GPRS and 3G 336
11.6 ITS-Telegeoinformatics Applications 337
11.6.1 Driver Assistance 337
11.62 Passenger Information 341
11.6.3 Vehicle Management 342
11.7 NON-Technical Issues Impacting on ITS 343
11.8 Concluding Remarks 345
References 345
Chapter 12 The Impact and Penetration of Location-Based Services
12.1 The Definition of Technologies 349
12.2 LBSs: Definitions, Software, and Usage 350
12.3 The Market for LBSs: A Model of the Development of LBSs 353
12.4 Penetration of Mobile Devices: Predictions of Future Markets 356
12.4.1 Summary of the Growth Trend in the Mobile Market 356
12.4.2 Prediction of Growth Trend in the Mobile Market 359
12.5 Impacts of LBSs on Geographical Locations 362
12.6 Conclusions 363
References 365
About the Authors 367
Index 373
