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Overview
The book presents the achievements of European IWRM research on a range of water management topics and offers conclusions and recommendations for research foci that will be invaluable to water managers, policy-makers and academic researchers working in the field of IWRM.
Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9781843391722 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | IWA Publishing |
| Publication date: | 04/14/2008 |
| Series: | European Water Research Series |
| Pages: | 174 |
| Product dimensions: | 6.12(w) x 9.25(h) x 0.75(d) |
Read an Excerpt
CHAPTER 1
The adaptiveness of IWRM
Jos G.Timmerman, Claudia Pahl-Wostl and Jörn Möltgen
1.1 IWRM IN A CHANGING WORLD
Water is an essential natural resource. There is plenty of freshwater in the world, but it is not distributed evenly in space and in time. Many people have too little water to grow their crops, while on the other hand floods frequently threaten lives and harvests. Also, the quality of the available water is often poor and access to safe drinking water is lacking (Cosgrove and Rijsberman 2000; Hinrichsen 2003; Saeijs and van Berkel 1995; Serageldin 1994).
Current water resource management poses many challenges. Water managers need to solve a range of interrelated water dilemmas, such as balancing water quantity and quality, flooding, drought, maintaining biodiversity and ecological functions and services, in a context where human beliefs, actions, and values play a central role. Furthermore, the growing uncertainties of global climate change and the long-term implications of operational management actions are additional hurdles for a sustainable water management in view of an increasing water scarcity. Policy development must therefore aim at developing in such a way that the present needs are met without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their needs (Rauch 1998). Sustainability in this sense requires balancing of needs including future needs which are not really predictable.
Water problems and water management options are as much a product of the social, economic and institutional context as they are of the biophysical and technical factors governing local hydrological conditions (Gleick 2003). Many water related challenges have to do with socio-economic distribution and access, especially in developing regions. Natural changes must in this context be distinguished from human-induced changes in the water system (Falkenmark 2000). Since water is the cornerstone of most economic activity, equitable distribution of supplies under changing conditions is often more of a challenge than absolute limitations on the available resource (Pahl-Wostl et al. 2005).
Water management is currently seen in terms of 'emergent complexity' (Ingram 2001). Next to the 'tame' problems there is now a class of problems termed 'wicked' or 'persistent'. Tame problems are not trivial problems, but problems which can be tackled with some degree of confidence. Wicked problems on the other hand, are unstructured problems which are characterised by a high level of technical and strategic uncertainties (there is no objective measure of success), and which have to be solved in a situation in which the parties involved are highly dependent on each other while each party has its own moral, political or professional preferences (Buckingham Shum 1997; Klijn et al. 2000; Pahl-Wostl 2007a; van der Brugge et al. 2004).
Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is for a long time considered to be able to cope with complex water management problems. IWRM accounts for social, economic and environmental factors and integrates surface water, groundwater and the ecosystems through which they flow (GWP-TAC 2000). Current water management, based on the concept of IWRM, however fails to satisfactorily solve the problems it is facing (for instance Falkenmark 2000; IWA 2002; Kabat and van Schaik 2003). It is increasingly argued that IWRM should be based on an Adaptive Management (AM) approach, which is defined as a systematic process for improving management policies and practices by learning from the outcomes of implemented management strategies (for instance Medema et al. 2007; Pahl-Wostl 2007a). This book investigates the state of the art in IWRM on selected topics to conclude on the necessary conditions to cope with the complexity in water management.
This chapter introduces the main concepts which are dealt with within this book, namely the concept of transition to adaptive water management, water management regimes, governance, vulnerability, the social dimension of water management, and participation. A more in-depth discussion of the concepts can be found in the respective chapters. This chapter will next to that discuss the main outcomes from the review of IWRM research as discussed in this book and the conclusions and recommendations which are be drawn from the book.
1.2 CONCEPTS IN WATER MANAGEMENT
1.2.1 The transition towards adaptive water management
Major challenges faced in water management are inherent in the variability and changing nature of water supplies as a result of climate change, along with the limited nature of scientific information and technical knowledge. Reliance on conventional methods of water management, based on the statistical analysis of historical data series, is in many cases not sufficient. Under such conditions, analysis must proceed iteratively with an emphasis on uncertainties rather than on the known (Kabat and van Schaik 2003; Pahl-Wostl 2002). Adaptive management is advocated as a timely extension of IWRM to cope with these challenges. Adaptive management aims at increasing the adaptive capacity of river basins based on a profound understanding of key factors that determine a basin's vulnerability. More attention has to be devoted to understanding and managing the transition towards more adaptive regimes that take into account environmental, technological, economic, institutional and cultural characteristics of river basins (Pahl-Wostl et al. 2005; Pahl-Wostl 2007b). This transition implies a change towards understanding management as learning rather than control, and towards including the human dimension as integral part of the management process (Gleick 2003).
Figure 1 represents essential elements of the transition. It identifies the key areas of policy oriented research required to understand the transition process towards an adaptive regime. The integration of these key areas will be essential for success (Pahl-Wostl et al. 2005). The figure represents elements of adaptive regimes and what is needed for the transition into integrated and adaptive water management as will be discussed in Chapter 2. This includes enhancing governance with stakeholder processes which integrate between policy and science involving better understanding on public participation in general and inclusion of informal institutions. Chapter 3 deals with this. As water management should be focused on river basins, it must adapt its transboundary institutions or create them in order to be able to adjust to the relevant drivers and pressures (Chapter 4). The financial and legal arrangements must be such that they include and enhance innovative approaches to risk management (Chapter 5). Also, the management system must build in adaptiveness to reduce vulnerability and exposure to stress (Chapter 6). This can, among others, be achieved by closely linking spatial planning to IWRM (Chapter 9). For all this it is necessary to better understand the consequences of climate hazards and change (Chapter 7). Furthermore, advanced monitoring systems are needed which are better integrated in the decision-making processes (Chapter 8). Finally, in the transition to adaptive water management, ample attention is needed for poverty, gender and health issues affecting the social dimension of sustainability (Chapter 10).
The central tenet of our argumentation concerns the transition towards more integrated and adaptive regimes of river basin water management in the future. This transition, in general, calls for a highly integrated water resources management concept. The need for greater integration is now widely recognised and accepted but there is, in actuality, little theoretical foundation as well as practical experience regarding how this integration could be achieved or of the consequences of attempts to achieve it.
1.2.2 Water management regimes
Regimes are defined in many different ways. Krasner (1983), for instance, defines a political regime as a set of institutions: 'implicit or explicit principles, norms, rules, and decision making procedures around which actors' expectations converge in a given area of international relations'. Pahl-Wostl defines it wider as the whole complex of technologies, institutions, environmental factors and paradigms which are highly interconnected and together form the base for the functioning of the management system targeted to fulfil a societal function (Pahl-Wostl 2007b). In this chapter, we will start off from the wider perspective. In Chapter 4, a more in depth discussion will be presented.
Regimes play a role at different levels. For water management the (transboundary) river basin level seems to be appropriate. A river basin management regime comprises the whole of actor networks, water law, water policy, information management and finances, because these elements reflect the principles, norms, rules and decision-making procedures in a concrete, analysable way (Raadgever et al. 2007). These elements will shortly be discussed here.
Water management has to build on both formal and informal networks. Current (transboundary) water management often centres around national governments and can be described as a 'prediction and control' regime (Moberg and Galaz 2005; Pahl-Wostl 2002). This system's approach is derived from a mechanistic thinking in which system behaviour and response can be predicted and optimal control strategies can be designed. However, it is questionable whether such an approach can provide the base for an effective integrated and adaptive water management coping with complexity and change. To better cope with the water management challenges, cooperation should be established between different levels of river basin administration. Furthermore, broad interaction and cooperation with NGO's, experts (e.g. scientists), and citizens is needed to exchange (new) knowledge and cooperation in framing, reframing, and solving problems (Ridder et al. 2005) so that all stakeholders continuously and actively learn (Folke et al. 2005; Pahl-Wostl and Hare 2004). Such interaction can be formalised to some extent in law or organisational structures or can take place on a purely informal basis (for instance Huitema et al. 2007). The interactions make it possible that conflicts are dealt with constructively, resulting in inclusive agreements to which the parties are committed (Raadgever et al. 2007).
The legal framework can support water management in different ways. Water law should include arrangements about integrated water management, governance networks, public participation, information management, planning and implementation, and financial aspects. To become adaptive, legislation should provide incentives to adapt the management regime to changing circumstances as well. It should therefore include provisions to review and change policies and regulations periodically (Raadgever et al. 2007).
Water policies are the formal documents which prescribe current and future water management (Raadgever et al. 2007). Water policies have until recently relied on technological possibilities, often large-scale infrastructure (dams, reservoirs, centralised waste water treatment plants) supposed to guarantee long-term stability and reliability and a higher efficiency in implementation, maintenance and operation than de-centralised small-scale structures. Due to long-life times and large sunk costs, change is largely impossible once a certain infrastructure is in place (Pahl-Wostl 2007b). Also in current water management regimes responsibilities are often fragmented with little interaction between areas such as flood protection, regional planning, waste water treatment, water supply, or hydropower generation. This allows for a high specialisation of dealing with a single problem but prevents integration and also prevents change and learning (Pahl-Wostl 2007b). From an adaptive management point of view, the full range of possible measures should be considered, in the context of several scenarios for future developments (Raadgever et al. 2007).
Information management deals with the iterative process of determining information needs and collecting, interpreting, exchanging and using information. In current water management regimes, technical experts define information needs. The main data collection and regular monitoring focuses on the state of the environment. Knowledge is not shared and communication with stakeholder and interest groups is mainly by passive channels (cf. reviews and case studies in Timmerman and Langaas 2004b). The criteria for adaptive information management are strongly connected to those for the actor networks and for policy development. A broad range of governmental and nongovernmental stakeholders should have the possibility to express their information needs, direct the information production, and exchange and discuss data and viewpoints. Also, information should not only reflect multiple perspectives, but should also consider current and future uncertainties (Giordano et al. 2007; Timmerman and Langaas 2005). In order to minimise the risk of misinterpretation or misuse of information, clear communication about the interpretations and assumptions which have been made is essential (Gooch 2004). This requires critical (self-)reflection of the individual frames of interpretation (Ridder et al. 2005).
In a transboundary context, it is important that national governments and transboundary commissions exchange information and actively disseminate information to the public (Nilsson 2003). In addition, effective information management at the local level is crucial in order to facilitate flexible management approaches. Strategic information management, e.g. using information as for instance a means to postpone or to direct decision-making, in transboundary cooperation should be limited as this reduces trust and cooperation. Information production and exchange should result in the use of information in policy debates, and should influence river basin management decisions (Timmerman and Langaas 2004b).
An appropriate financing system requires sufficient resources to be available for water management, from private as well as public sources. The supposition should be that the additional investment on the short term results in larger costs savings on the longer term. Aspects of financing include cost recovery from the users of the river who are considered to benefit from adaptive management, because it makes them aware of the consequences of their activities and helps to avoid overexploitation of the river basin. Also, to ensure actual implementation of measures, decision-making and financing should be in the hands of the same party (Raadgever et al. 2007).
1.2.3 Governance
The introduction of the term governance over the last few decades has signalled a change in thinking about the nature of policies. The notion of government as the single decision making authority has been replaced by multi-scale, polycentric governance taking thus into account that a large number of stakeholders in different institutional settings contribute to policy and management of a resource. This change reflects a more general trend in public policy, different from the old hierarchical model in which state authorities exert sovereign control over the people and groups making up civil society (Mayntz 1998). 'Governance' takes into account the increasing importance of basically non-hierarchical modes of governing, where non-state, private corporate actors (formal organisations) participate in the formulation and implementation of public policy (Rhodes 1997). Governance encompasses thus a broad range of processes related to the coordination and steering of a wide range of actors by formal and informal institutions. Governance theory includes the study of principles, norms and rules, of informal institutions, and flexible patterns, which are constantly forming and reforming (Smouts 1998), such as those in water policy.
A governance system is based on voluntary agreements which are confined through a set of rules that are binding in the sense that they create convergent expectations and govern behaviour. This contrasts with a government system, where obligations emanate from hierarchical norm- and rule-setting processes (Mayer et al. 1993) (also see Chapter 3). Effective modern governance can therefore only emerge in societies which meet the following institutional and structural preconditions, both on the side of the political regime and on the side of civil society: (1) political authorities must be powerful, but not omnipotent; (2) the existence of a strong, functionally differentiated, and well organised civil society; (3) there must also be corporate actors who represent different functional as well as different socio-economic interests; and (4) there must exist among the different social groups and organisations at least a minimal sense of identification with, and responsibility for, the greater whole, in short, a common identity (Mayntz 2003). Moving towards more adaptive water management demands moving towards an improved system of water governance, which entails building on these aspects (see Chapters 2 and 3).
(Continues…)
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Table of Contents
Preface, vii,
List of Contributors, xi,
Chapter 1 The adaptiveness of IWRM Jos G. Timmerman, Claudia Pahl-Wostl and Jörn Möltgen, 1,
Chapter 2 New approaches to water management: contributions from European research on complexity, learning and uncertainty Claudia Pahl-Wostl and Paul Jeffrey, 13,
Chapter 3 Participation in water management: Theory and practice Geoffrey D. Gooch and David Huitema, 27,
Chapter 4 Analysis of European IWRM research on transboundary regimes Gulnara Roll, Natalia Alexeeva, Eduard Interwies and Jos G. Timmerman, 45,
Chapter 5 Economics of integrated water management in a European perspective Ing-Marie Gren, 61,
Chapter 6 Vulnerability and exposure to shocks and stresses in river basins: a review of EU research and some avenues for the future David Sauri, 75,
Chapter 7 Understanding consequences of climate change for water resources and water-related sectors in Europe Fred F. Hattermann, Valentina Krysanova, Joachim Post, Thomas Dworak, Markus Wrobel, Susanne Kadner and Anna Leipprand, 89,
Chapter 8 Monitoring information systems to support integrated decision-making Raffaele Giordano, Vito F. Uricchio and Michele Vurro, 113,
Chapter 9 Integration of spatial planning in flood management in European research Hans de Moel and Jeroen Aerts, 129,
Chapter 10 The social dimensions of IWRM: Where does inequality fit in? Rhodante Ahlers and Dagmar Ridder, 141,