Table of Contents
Preface ix
Introduction 01
1 The first human fossils 05
Summary 10
2 The geological context 13
2.1 The geological time scale 13
2.2 Movement of the continents 14
2.3 Fossilization 19
2.4 Dating 19
2.5 Dating techniques 21
2.6 Habitats and environment 23
2.7 Climate changes and long-term cycles 25
Summary 26
3 Evolution and natural selection 27
3.1 Darwin and the origin of species by natural selection 27
3.2 The modern synthesis of evolution 30
3.3 Inheritance of characters 35
3.4 Population genetics 30
3.5 Geographic isolation and speciation 43
4 65 - 40mya: Primate and anthropoid origins 47
4.1 The Scandentia and the Plesiadapiformes 50
4.2 The emergence of primates 54
4.3 Ancient primates 58
4.4 Dentition of ancient primates 64
4.5 The most ancient anthropoid? 67
4.6 Evolutionary relationships of adapiformes, omomyiformes and anthropoids 68
4.7 Classification of primates 71
Summary 71
5 40 - 8 mya: Anthropoids and hominoids 75
5.1 Introduction 75
5.2 Radiation of the anthropoids and other primates 76
5.3 Use of cladistics for identifying evolutionary relationships in primate groups 81
5.4 Social structures in primate groups 85
5.5 The hominoidea 87
5.6 Conclusion 102
6 8 - 4.4 mya: Who were the ancestors of the hominins? 107
6.1 The first hominin: Toumai? 108
6.2 The first hominin: Orrorin? 112
6.3 Another first hominin: Ardipithecus kadabba 114
6.4 Ardipithecus ramidus 115
6.5 An un-named hominin from Lothagam 116
6.6 Evolutionary relationships of the early hominins 116
6.7 Conclusion 117
7 4.2 - 3.0 mya: Adaptive radiation of hominins 119
7.1 The australopiths 120
7.2 The First australopith-Australopithecus anamensis 122
7.3 Australopithecus afarensis; a possible ancestor of Homo 122
7.4 The Flat-faced skull from Kenya 126
7.5 Australopithecus africanus 127
7.6 Sterkfontein and the 'Little Foot' Discovery 131
7.7 Which species belong in the genus Australopithecus? 132
7.8 Conclusion 134
8 3.0 - 1.0 mya: Emergence and diversification of the genus Homo 137
8.1 The Robust australopiths 138
8.2 Paranthropus boisei 138
8.3 Paranthropus aethiopicus 141
8.4 Australopithecus garhi 142
8.5 Tools and tool technologies 142
8.6 Australopiths in the human lineage 143
8.7 Early Homo 145
8.8 Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis 150
8.9 Homo rudolfensis and Kenyanthropus platyops 150
8.10 Radiation of Homo species 153
8.11 Homo ergaster and Homo erectus 153
8.12 Did Homo erectus Return to Africa? 160
8.13 Conclusion 161
9 1.0 mya - 700 000 years ago 165
9.1 Introduction 165
9.2 Persistence of Homo erectus in Africa and East Asia 168
9.3 Homo antecessor in Spain 181
9.4 The Ceprano hominin calvaria 187
9.5 Conclusion 188
10 700 000ya - 130 000ya: Emergence of new species of Homo 191
10.1 Introduction 191
10.2 The emergence and migration of Homo heidelbergensis 192
10.3 The discovery of Neandertals 205
10.4 The emergence of modern Homo sapiens 219
10.5 Conclusion 225
11 130 000 - 10 000 Years Ago Homo sapiens Out of Africa 229
11.1 Introduction 229
11.2 The role of genetic studies 231
11.3 Studying Artefacts 239
11.4 Modern Homo sapiens in Africa 239
11.5 Neandertals and modern Homo sapiens in Western Asia and Middle East 246
11.6 Neandertals and modern Homo sapiens in Europe 254
11.7 Modern Humans and Neandertals in Central Asia 263
11.8 South East Asia and Australasia 264
11.9 A New Species of Homo? 268
11.10 East Asia 272
11.11 Modern Humans Arrive in the Americas 275
11.12 Conclusion 279
12 Coda 285
Answers to End of Chapter Questions 293
Glossary 307
Index 317
