Table of Contents
Preface vii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Basic Concepts 1
1.2 Definitions 2
1.2.1 System 2
1.2.2 Properly, state, and process 3
1.2.3 Equation of state 4
1.2.4 State and path functions 5
1.2.5 Equilibrium 7
1.3 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics 9
1.3.1 Measurement of temperature 9
1.3.2 Constant temperature (isothermal) process 14
1.4 Heat 14
1.4.1 Heat capacity 15
1.4.2 Adiabatic process 19
2 Calculation of Work in Reversible and Irreversible Processes 25
2.1 Force 25
2.1.1 Pressure and mechanical equilibrium 27
2.1.2 Constant pressure (isobaric) process 29
2.2 Work 30
2.2.1 The concept of work in mechanics 30
2.2.2 Kinetic energy and work 33
2.2.3 Conservation of mechanical energy 35
2.2.4 Work done by nonconservative forces 39
2.3 The Concept of Reversibility 42
2.3.1 Reversible and irreversible work 44
3 Pressure-Volume-Temperature (PVT) Relations for Pure Substances 63
3.1 Phase Change of a Pure Subtance 63
3.2 PVT Diagrams for Pure Substances 65
3.2.1 Temperature-volume (T-V) diagram 65
3.2.2 Pressure-volume [P-V] diagram 66
3.2.3 Pressure-temperature (P-T) diagram 67
3.3 Property Tables 69
3.3.1 Enthalpy 70
3.3.2 Saturated liquid and saturated vapor 70
3.3.3 Vapor-liquid mixture 71
3.3.4 Superheated vapor 74
3.3.5 Compressed (subcooled) liquid 75
3.3.6 Interpolation of the values in property tables 76
3.4 Examples 80
4 The First Law of Thermodynamics 87
4.1 The First Law for a Closed System 87
4.1.1 Reversible processes in a closed system 90
4.1.2 Internal energy and enthalpy change for liquids and solids 92
1.1.1 Reversible processes involving an ideal gas 95
4.2 Generalized Development of the First Law 116
4.3 The First Law for Steady-state Flow Processes 120
4.3.1 Heat exchanger 122
4.3.2 Throttling device 124
4.3.3 Turbine 127
4.3.4 Compressor and pump 133
4.3.5 Nozzle and diffuser 136
4.3.6 Mixing chamber 138
4.3.7 Mechanical energy balance 140
4.4 The First Law for Unsteady-State Processes 144
4.5 Interpretation of Adages and Songs in Terms of the First Law of Thermodynamics 156
5 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 175
5.1 Carnot Cycle 175
5.2 Heat Engines and Heat Pumps 180
5.2.1 Statements of the second law 183
5.3 Entropy 187
5.3.1 Reversible and isothermal process 190
5.3.2 Reversible and adiabatic (isentropic) process 191
5.3.3 Thermodynamic diagrams involving entropy 195
5.4 Entropy Generation 197
5.4.1 Entropy balance 204
5.4.2 Feasibility of a process 206
5.5 Calculation of Entropy Change 209
5.5.1 Entropy change for liquids and solids 210
5.5.2 Entropy change for a phase change 211
5.5.3 Entropy change of an ideal gas 212
5.6 Shaft Work and Isentropic Efficiency 232
5.6.1 Shaft work in reversible steady-state flow processes 232
5.6.2 Isentropic efficiency of a turbine 234
5.6.3 Isentropic efficiency of a compressor 241
5.7 Second Law Analysis of Steady-State Flow Processes 243
5.7.1 Lost work 244
5.7.2 Second-law efficiency of separation processes 249
5.8 What is Entropy? 253
5.8.1 Is entropy a measure of disorder? 253
5.8.2 Molecular interpretation of entropy 254
5.8.3 The third law of thermodynamics 259
5.9 Interpretation of Adages, Songs, and Poems in Terms of the Second Law of Thermodynamics 259
6 Power and Refrigeration Cycles 275
6.1 Vapor Power Cycles 275
6.1.1 Carnot cycle 278
6.1.2 Rankine cycle 279
6.2 Gas Power Cycles 288
6.2.1 Gas turbine power plant 288
6.2.2 Internal combustion engines 292
6.3 Refrigeration Cycles 299
6.3.1 Refrigerants 299
6.3.2 Carnot vapor-compression refrigeration cycle 301
6.3.3 The ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle 306
6.3.4 Deviations from idealities 309
6.3.5 Cascade refrigeration cycles 313
Appendix A Steam Tables 323
Appendix B Thermodynamic Properties of Refrigerant-134a (1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane) 345
Appendix C Constants and Conversion Factors 355
Notation 357
Index 361
