Tyrannosaurus rex, the Tyrant King
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Tyrannosaurus rex, the Tyrant King
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Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9780253350879 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | Indiana University Press |
| Publication date: | 07/17/2008 |
| Series: | Life of the Past |
| Pages: | 456 |
| Product dimensions: | 7.20(w) x 10.00(h) x 1.30(d) |
| Age Range: | 18 Years |
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Tyrannosaurus Rex, the Tyrant King
By Peter Larson, Kenneth Carpenter
Indiana University Press
Copyright © 2008 Indiana University PressAll rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-0-253-35087-9
CHAPTER 1
HUNDRED YEARS OF TYRANNOSAURUS REX: THE SKELETONS
Neal L. Larson
Introduction
In 1905, Henry Fairfield Osborn, of the American Museum of Natural History, published the name Tyrannosaurus rex for a large theropod discovered by Barnum Brown within the Upper Maastrichtian Hell Creek Formation of Montana. Later, Dynamosaurus imperiosus Osborn 1905 and 2 cervical vertebrae described as Manospondylus gigas (Cope 1892) were included in the species (Osborn 1916). The most complete T. rex skeleton, AMNH 5027, was also excavated by Barnum Brown from the Hell Creek Formation of Montana in 1908. Because there were so few specimens, most people believed that T. rex was rare.
A dinosaur renaissance beginning in the 1960s inspired many paleontologists to seek out new and more complete specimens. Since 1965, 42 skeletons (5% to 80% complete by bone count) of T. rex have been excavated from the Western Interior of North America. To date, T. rex has been found in the uppermost Cretaceous terrestrial rocks from central Alberta to southern New Mexico, and from north-central South Dakota to central Utah. These skeletons, along with innumerable numbers of bones and teeth, have been discovered, excavated, displayed, and written about in numerous scientific and popular books and publications.
The discovery of the Tyrannosaurus specimen known as Sue and its subsequent publicity (Glut 2000; Fiffer 2000; Larson and Donnan 2002) reignited this renaissance. The rumors of Sue's value lured dozens of amateur paleontologists and untrained fortune hunters into the field. Although most knew nothing about collecting or caring for fossils once they were discovered, people were looking for dinosaurs in areas that no one had ever searched. Within the last 15 years, most exposures of the Hell Creek and Lance Formations have been explored, resulting in many new specimens of Tyrannosaurus and other dinosaurs being discovered. These new Tyrannosaurus specimens have yielded more information about T. rex than was once thought possible, as evidenced by this volume. Much has now been learned about the respiratory, digestive, and reproductive systems, feeding habits, range, sex, lifestyles, injuries, and diseases of the tyrant-lizard king. These new specimens have provided data on arm and jaw strength, speed, and growth rate, and findings have bolstered the finding of a close relationship of bird and theropods. Because of these new discoveries, the once-rare T. rex is now one of the most abundant large theropods in many museum collections. An annotated catalog of these specimens is presented below.
Tyrannosaurus rex Specimens
Brief descriptions follow each of the more complete Tyrannosaurus rex specimens recovered to date. Each listed specimen has a minimum of 10 associated skeletal bones from several parts of the body or a fairly complete skull. The list excludes specimens consisting of only a braincase and/or a few skull bones, or only foot bones, or only caudal bones, as well as the countless specimens of T. rex teeth and isolated bones. Although there may be some omissions, the total number of skeletons is particularly impressive when considering that most of these specimens have been found in the last 15 years. Considering the wide geographic range of the specimens, and assuming there is only one North American species, the paleogeographic range of T. rex was immense — possibly larger than that of most other large theropods (Fig. 1.1).
Although some authors have considered Nanotyrannus lancensis (Bakker et al. 1988) synonymous with T. rex (Carr 1999; Carr and Williamson 2004; Holtz 2004; Glut 1997, 2000, 2003, 2006), others (Bakker et al. 1988; Currie 2003; Larson this volume) do not agree. Tooth count, bone shape, and foramen placement and size, along with many other skeletal differences, seem to clearly separate the 2 genera. Because there is so much evidence separating Nanotyrannus from T. rex, I have excluded Nanotyrannus from the following list of T. rex specimens. Aublysodon molnari Paul, 1988 (=Stygivenator molnari Olshevsky, Ford, and Yamamoto, 1995), was excluded for similar reasons.
The following Tyrannosaurus rex skeletons have been assigned a percentage of completeness on the basis of the number of bones found with each skeleton. The total number of bones in a skeleton of T. rex is approximately 300 (Appendix). All identifiable bones, whether complete or incomplete, are counted as bones in the totals. For many skeletons, some bones were fragmented or eroded, and others were fragmented before burial. In most instances, if the incomplete bones can be positively identified, they are treated as complete bones for the purpose of calculating the percentage of completeness for each skeleton. Every effort was made to avoid inflating the count (for instance, rib heads were counted but rib shafts were not, unless they could be proved to be from separate ribs already counted). The completeness of a skeleton was then derived by dividing the number of bones found with each specimen by the total number of bones in a skeleton.
I attempted to locate and list all Tyrannosaurus specimens collected from the upper Maastrichtian terrestrial rocks of North America. All specimens are listed, whether they are in private hands or public institutions. Any errors or omissions are solely my responsibility. All known institutions, repositories, and private collectors that may have Tyrannosaurus rex skeletal elements in their collections were contacted for data, and most were cooperative. The following specimens are listed chronologically and alphabetically by their catalog number and/or their nickname or moniker. The year of excavation is given rather than the year of discovery because some of them were not excavated until many decades after they were initially found (Table 1.1).
1900–1909
The years 1900 through 1909 marked the dawn of our understanding of Tyrannosaurus rex. This decade includes the initial discovery and description of Tyrannosaurus rex Osborn 1905. Four incomplete skeletons of T. rex were unearthed during this time, and each one would contribute tremendously to the knowledge of this magnificent dinosaur (Osborn 1905, 1906, 1912, 1916). Nearly 60 years would pass before any other skeletons were collected, and it would be nearly 80 more years before ideas of how they lived, acted, and walked would change.
BMNH R7994
(Originally AMNH 5866)
(Holotype of Dynamosaurus imperiosus Osborn 1905)
DISCOVERED: The year 1900, Barnum Brown, a professional collector employed by AMNH.
LOCATION: Seven Mile Creek, Weston County, WY (Fig. 1.1, site 1).
FORMATION: Lance Formation.
EXCAVATED: American Museum expedition under Barnum Brown, 1900.
RESPIRATORY: Natural History Museum, London, England, UK.
ACQUISITION: Purchased from the American Museum of Natural History, 1960.
DESCRIBED: Osborn (1905, 1906); Newman (1970); Carpenter (1990); Glut (1997).
SKELETAL REMAINS: The skull consists of both palatines and both dentaries. The postcranial skeleton has all 10 cervical vertebrae, plus 9 left and 4 right cervical ribs. The first 5 dorsal and the 5 sacral vertebrae are also present, along with the right ilium, the left ischium, and the right femur.
COMPLETENESS: Forty bones, or 13% of a skeleton by bone count.
ON DISPLAY? Yes, according to Phillip Manning (personal communication 2005); some parts, the dentary, and maybe another bone or two, are displayed at the Natural History Museum, London, England, UK.
COMMENTS: This Tyrannosaurus rex specimen had the first articulated neck with cervical ribs. It was discovered with numerous scutes of what is now known to be from an Ankylosaurus (Carpenter 2004). The species was synonymized with Tyrannosaurus rex by Osborn (1906) in his second contribution on Tyrannosaurus.
CM 9380
(Originally AMNH 973)
(Holotype of Tyrannosaurus rex Osborn 1905)
DISCOVERED: The year 1902, Barnum Brown, a professional collector employed by AMNH.
LOCATION: From Quarry No. 1, near Jordan, Garfield County, MT (Osborn 1905) (Fig. 1.1, site 2).
FORMATION: Hell Creek Formation, 220 feet above the Bearpaw Shale.
EXCAVATED: American Museum expedition, under Barnum Brown, 1902–1905.
RESPIRATORY: Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburg, PA.
ACQUISITION: Purchased from the American Museum of Natural History, 1941.
DESCRIBED: Osborn (1905, 1906, 1912, 1916); Carpenter (1990); Glut (1997).
SKELETAL REMAINS: The partial skeleton consists of the right maxilla, both lacrimals, left squamosal and ectopterygoid, both dentaries, and the left surangular. It also has 1 cervical, 7 dorsals, and 5 sacral vertebrae; 3 gastralia; right scapula and left humerus; both ilia, pubes, and ischia; the left femur and part of the right tibia; and 3 metatarsals (McIntosh 1981).
COMPLETENESS: Thirty-four bones, or 11% of a skeleton by bone count.
ON DISPLAY? Was on display at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburg, PA, since the early 1940s. In 2005, the skeleton was dismantled, but it is scheduled to be freshly restored, remounted, and back on display sometime late 2007.
COMMENTS: The American Museum of Natural History sold the skeleton soon after the beginning of World War II. It has often been stated that it was necessary to ensure that a Tyrannosaurus rex would survive in the event of a bombing. Because the skeletal pose had not been redone since it went on display in the 1940s, the Carnegie Museum of Natural History is now in the process of conserving and remounting the original skeleton.
CM 1400
DISCOVERED: The year 1902, Olaf Peterson, a professional collector employed by Carnegie Museum.
LOCATION: Snyder Creek, Niobrara County, WY (Fig. 1.1, site 3).
FORMATION: Lance Formation.
EXCAVATED: Olaf Peterson and Carnegie Museum expedition, 1902.
RESPIRATORY: Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburg, PA.
DESCRIBED: Partially described by McIntosh (1981).
SKELETAL REMAINS: McIntosh (1981) noted that CM 1400 contains the left maxilla, premaxilla, and pterygoid, the nasals, and the braincase. The postcranial skeleton consists of 2 cervical ribs, 1 dorsal vertebrae, 1 dorsal rib, 3 chevrons, the left ischium, and both pubes (incomplete).
COMPLETENESS: Twenty-nine bones, or 10% of a skeleton by bone count. ON DISPLAY? No.
COMMENTS: Because the Carnegie was in possession of this large theropod specimen, it encouraged Osborn (1905) to publish on Tyrannosaurus rex earlier than he originally intended (http://paleo.amnh.org/ projects/t-rex/index.html).
AMNH 5027
DISCOVERED: The year 1908, Barnum Brown, a professional collector employed by AMNH.
LOCATION: Near Dry Creek, McCone County, MT (Fig. 1.1, site 4).
FORMATION: Hell Creek Formation, 220 feet above the Bearpaw Shale.
EXCAVATED: American Museum field crew under Barnum Brown, 1908.
RESPIRATORY: American Museum of Natural History, New York.
DESCRIBED: Osborn (1912, 1916).
SKELETAL REMAINS: The specimen boasts the first complete skull, all of the cervical, dorsal, and sacral vertebrae, plus 18 caudal vertebrae and 7 chevrons; 9 cervical ribs from the right side; 20 dorsal ribs; both ilia, ischia, and pubes.
COMPLETENESS: A total of 143 bones, or 48%, of a skeleton by bone count.
ON DISPLAY? Yes, at the American Museum of Natural History, New York.
COMMENTS: This specimen of Tyrannosaurus rex was the classic one, the best T. rex skeleton on view anywhere until Sue and Stan were prepared in 2000 and 1995, respectively. The skull and much of the skeleton were articulated, but the skeleton lacked legs, feet, forelimbs, and the distal end of the tail. With 143 bones, this was the most complete T. rex skeleton until 1990 with the excavation of MOR 555 (146 bones) and a T. rex named Sue (219 bones). In 1996, the skeleton, which had been mounted in an upright position, was remounted into a more natural pose. There are casts of the skull and of the skeleton in museum collections throughout the world.
1910–1959
Wars, rumors of wars, and the Great Depression kept many paleontologists out of the field and in the lab from the 1910s through the 1950s. Although there was only some dinosaur collecting from Upper Cretaceous formations undertaken during this period in the United States, there was substantial collecting in Canada. Some paleontologists, such as the Sternberg family and Barnum Brown, did extensive collecting in Alberta, helping to build the collections and displays in the major museums of Canada, Europe, and the United States. It was also during this time that Roy Chapman Andrews discovered an entirely new Late Cretaceous dinosaur fauna in Mongolia, which would later include the Asian tyrannosaurid, Tarbosaurus.
1960–1979
Beginning in the mid 1960s, new dinosaur finds once again began to lure more people into the field, and many amateurs would make important discoveries. New discoveries in Montana would begin to establish the Museum of the Rockies and Los Angeles County Museum as major repositories for dinosaurs. For the first time, non-East Coast museums would possess original specimens of the tyrant-lizard king.
Discoveries of Deinonychus and the resultant revolutionary concepts about dinosaurs by John Ostrom (Yale University) would help to change the way we looked at dinosaurs. Many modern researchers would use Ostrom's brilliant research as a springboard to present Tyrannosaurus and other dinosaurs as active, warm-blooded, birdlike animals instead of cold-blooded, lizardlike creatures (e.g., Bakker 1986; Paul this volume).
MOR 008
DISCOVERED: In 1967, by Dr. William MacMannis, an archeologist from Montana State University (Larson and Donnan 2002).
LOCATION: Garfield County, MT (Fig. 1.1, site 5).
FORMATION: Hell Creek Formation.
EXCAVATED: A team from the Museum of the Rockies, 1967.
RESPIRATORY: Museum of the Rockies, Bozeman, MT.
DESCRIBED: Partial description in Molnar (1991).
SKELETAL REMAINS: The skull is missing only the left premaxilla, the right palatine, the right epipterygoid, and the vomer. The lower jaw is missing the splenials, the coronoids, the right dentary, and the left prearticular. An atlas is also present.
COMPLETENESS: Forty-six bones, or 15% of a skeleton by bone count. ON DISPLAY? A cast of the skull is on display at the Black Hills Museum of Natural History, Hill City, SD.
COMMENTS: The specimen consists of only an articulated skull and the atlas of a very large (Sue size), robust adult. It was on display at the Museum of the Rockies until 1990, when it was moved to the collections. Portions of this skull were molded and cast to supplement the missing portions of MOR 555 (a gracile Tyrannosaurus rex).
(Continues...)
Excerpted from Tyrannosaurus Rex, the Tyrant King by Peter Larson, Kenneth Carpenter. Copyright © 2008 Indiana University Press. Excerpted by permission of Indiana University Press.
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Table of Contents
ContentsSupplemental CD-Rom ContentsContributorsPrefaceInstitutional Abbreviations1. One Hundred Years of Tyrannosaurus rex: The SkeletonsNeal L. Larson2. Wyoming's Dynamosaurus imperiosus and Other Early Discoveries of Tyrannosaurus rex in the Rocky Mountain WestBrent H. Breithaupt, Elizabeth H. Southwell, and Neffra A. Matthews3. How Old Is T. rex? Challenges with the Dating of Terrestrial Strata Deposited during the Maastrichtian Stage of the Cretaceous PeriodKirk Johnson4. Preliminary Account of the Tyrannosaurid Pete from the Lance Formation of WyomingKraig Derstler and John M. Myers5. Taphonomy of the Tyrannosaurus rex Peck's Rex from the Hell Creek Formation of MontanaKraig Derstler and John M. Myers6. Taphonomy and Environment of Deposition of a Juvenile Tyrannosaurid Skeleton from the Hell Creek Formation (Latest Maastrichtian) of Southeastern MontanaMichael D. Henderson and William H. Harrison7. One Pretty Amazing T. rexMary Higby Schweitzer, Jennifer L. Wittmeyer, and John R. Horner8. Variation and Sexual Dimorphism in Tyrannosaurus rexPeter Larson9. Why Tyrannosaurus rex Had Puny Arms: An Integral Morphodynamic Solution to a Simple Puzzle in Theropod PaleobiologyMartin Lockley, Reiji Kukihara, and Laura Mitchell10. Looking Again at the Forelimb of Tyrannosaurus rexChristine Lipkin and Kenneth Carpenter11. Rex, Sit: Digital Modeling of Tyrannosaurus rex at RestKent A. Stevens, Peter Larson, Eric D. Wills, and Art Anderson12. T. rex Speed TrapPhillip L. Manning13. Atlas of the Skull Bones of Tyrannosaurus rexPeter Larson14. Palatal Kinesis of Tyrannosaurus rexHans C. E. Larsson15. Reconstruction of the Jaw Musculature of Tyrannosaurus rexRalph E. Molnar16. Vestigialism in a DinosaurWilliam L. Abler17. Tyrannosaurid Pathologies as Clues to Nature and Nurture in the CretaceousBruce M. Rothschild and Ralph E. Molnar18. The Extreme Lifestyles and Habits of the Gigantic Tyrannosaurid Superpredators of the Late Cretaceous of North America and AsiaGregory S. Paul19. An Analysis of Predator-Prey Behavior in a Head-to-Head Encounter between Tyrannosaurus rex and TriceratopsJohn Happ20. A Critical Reappraisal of the Obligate Scavenging Hypothesis for Tyrannosaurus rex and Other Tyrant DinosaursThomas R. Holtz Jr.21. Tyrannosaurus rex: A Century of CelebrityDonald F. GlutIndexWhat People are Saying About This
Tyrannosaurus rex is unquestionably the most charismatic dinosaur, the star of countless Hollywood monster movies. In reality this dinosaur was no monster, but an animal trying to meet the same survival challenges faced by other species, both living and extinct. The contributors to this book shed considerable light on what life was like for one of the most spectacular predators of all time.