Table of Contents

1. Computer System for Power System Operation and Control.- 1.1 Computer Control of Power Systems.- 1.1.1 Computer Control — Definition.- 1.1.2 Advantages of Computer Control.- 1.1.3 Classification of a Computer Control System.- 1.1.4 Types of Control.- 1.1.5 System Concepts.- 1.1.6 Functions of a Computer Control System.- 1.1.7 Hardware Requirements.- 1.1.8 Software Requirements.- 1.1.9 Historical Development of Computer Facilities in Load Dispatching and Control.- 1.1.10 Planning a Computer Control System.- 1.2 Functions, Computer Configurations and Control aids.- 1.2.1 Functions of a Computer System.- 1.2.2 Classification and Monitoring of Power System Operating States.- 1.2.3 Role of Decision-Making in System Control.- 1.2.4 Real-Time Functions.- 1.2.5 Components of a Control Centre.- 1.2.6 Energy Management System Software Structure (EMS).- 1.3 Case Studies of Computerisation in Control Centres.- 1.3.1 The PJM Interconnection.- 1.3.2 The CEGB Power System.- 1.3.2.1 Salient features of the system.- 1.3.2.2 Short-term Operation Planning.- 1.3.2.3 On-line computational facilities.- 1.3.3 The ENEL Power System.- 1.3.3.1 Brief description of the system.- 1.3.3.2 Hierarchical levels of Dispatching/Control.- 1.3.3.3 Functions at different levels.- 1.3.3.4 Data communication routes.- 1.3.3.5 Control System Characteristics.- 1.3.3.6 Recent advances in ENEL’s Computer System for system operation and control..- 1.3.4 The Ontario Hydro Power System.- 1.3.5 The French System.- 2. System control.- 2.1 Economic Load Dispatch for Thermal Power Plants.- 2.1.1 Neglecting Transmission Losses.- 2.1.2 Considering Transmission Losses (Penalty Factors).- 2.1.3 Considering the Fuel Storage Capacity.- 2.2 Load-Frequency Control (LFC).- 2.2.1 General Principles.- 2.2.2 Primary Regulation.- 2.2.2.1 The speed governor.- 2.2.2.2 Regulation of a generator on a passive network.- 2.2.2.3 Regulation of a generator in parallel with infinite network.- 2.2.2.4 Regulation of more generators in parallel operation.- 2.2.2.5 Transfer functions of the primary energy systems and of prime movers..- 2.2.2.6 Static characteristics of regulation.- 2.2.2.7 Power control in thermal units.- 2.2.3 Secondary Regulation.- 2.2.3.1 Regulation of an isolated network.- 2.2.3.2 Regulation of interconnected networks.- 2.3 Automatic Generation Control (AGC).- 3. Reactive power balance and voltage control.- 3.1 General.- 3.2 Reactive Power Planning and Control Boundaries.- 3.2.1 Reactive Power Planning.- 3.2.2 Control Boundaries.- 3.3 Reactive Power Requirements.- 3.3.1 Transmission Network.- 3.3.2 Consumers’ Requirements.- 3.3.3 Total Requirements of Reactive Power.- 3.4 Reactive Power Balance — Case Study.- 3.5 Reactive Generation and Absorption.- 3.5.1 Generators.- 3.5.1.1 Generator Transformer Taps.- 3.5.1.2 Negative bias on AVRs.- 3.5.1.3 Automatic Voltage regulation.- 3.5.2 Reactive Elements.- 3.5.2.1 Synchronous condensor.- 3.5.2.2 Shunt capacitor.- 3.5.2.3 Shunt reactor.- 3.5.2.4 Series capacitor.- 3.5.2.5 Static Var Compensator.- 3.5.2.6 Saturable Reactors.- 3.5.2.7 Tap-staggered transformers.- 3.6 Two Case Studies.- 3.7 Reactive Scheduling Procedure.- 3.8 Operating Measures.- 3.9 Modern Trends in Voltage Regulation.- 3.9.1 Primary Voltage Regulation.- 3.9.2 Secondary Voltage Regulation.- 3.9.3 Tertiary Voltage Regulation.- 4. System Security and Quality of Operation.- 4.1 General.- 4.2 Definitions of Operating States, Voltage and Frequency Collapse, Electromagnetic Compatibility and Security Despatch.- 4.2.1 Network Disturbance.- 4.2.2 Severity of System Disturbance.- 4.2.3 Operating States of BES Concerning Security.- 4.2.4 Probabilistic Security.- 4.2.5 Voltage Collapse.- 4.2.6 Frequency Collapse.- 4.2.7 Instability of Generators.- 4.2.8 Electro-Magnetic Compatibility (EMC).- 4.2.9 Security Dispatch.- 4.3 Security Monitoring.- 4.4 Quality of Operation.- 4.5 Effective Network Utilisation.- 4.6 Sources of Disturbances.- 5. Emergency Control.- 5.1 General.- 5.2 Measures to Prevent Frequency Collapse.- 5.3 Measures to Prevent Voltage Collapse.- 5.4 Prevention of Overloads and Instability.- 5.5 Prevention of Power Disparity.- 5.6 Operation of Generators in Emergency Conditions.- 5.7 Restoration Procedures.- 6. Grid Failures — Case Studies and ‘Defence’ Plan Against Failures.- 6.1 General.- 6.2 Case Studies.- 6.2.1 The Northeast Power Failure, NOV. 9 and 10, 1965.- 6.2.1.1 FPC’s recommendations for preventing failures.- 6.2.2 The Con Edison Power Failure, July 13–14, 1977.- 6.2.3 Power Failure in the French System, Dec. 19, 1978.- 6.2.3.1 Forecast of conditions to meet the 1978–79 Winter.- 6.2.3.2 Conditions on the eve of Dec. 19, 1978.- 6.2.3.3 Evolution of system conditions on Dec. 19, 1978.- 6.2.3.4 Description of the failure.- 6.2.3.5 Restoration of service.- 6.2.3.6 Analysis and action-plan for the future.- 6.2.4 Power Failure in Maharastra, India, July 13, 1983.- 6.2.4.1 The System.- 6.2.4.2 Failure on July 13, 1983.- 6.2.4.3 Analysis of the failure.- 6.2.4.4 Restoration of supply.- 6.2.4.5 Deficiencies and steps to overcome them.- 6.2.4.6 Conclusion.- 6.2.5 ESKOM Disturbance, Nov. 8, 1990.- 6.2.5.1 The incident on Nov 8, 1990.- 6.2.5.2 Conclusions.- 6.2.6 South-Western Norway Disturbance, January 16–17, 1993.- 6.2.6.1 Sequence of events.- 6.2.6.2 Conclusions.- 6.2.7 Egat System Disturbance, March 3, 1993.- 6.2.8 ENEL System Disturbance, May 20, 1993.- 6.2.8.1 The occurrence on 20 May 1993.- 6.2.8.2 Analysis and conclusions.- 6.2.9 New South Wales Bushfires Disturbances, January 3 TO 12, 1994.- 6.2.9.1 Summary of happenings.- 6.2.9.2 Operational practices.- 6.2.9.3 Land management problems.- 6.2.9.4 Staff performance.- 6.2.9.5 Conclusions.- 6.3 EDF’s ‘Defence’ Plan Against Major Disturbances..- 6.3.1 Load Shedding on Frequency Criterion.- 6.3.2 Action Taken in Case of Loss of Synchronism.- 6.3.3 New Defence System Against Loss of Synchronism.- 7. Effects of Grid Disturbances on Power Station and Consumer Equipment.- 7.1 General.- 7.2 Effects of Low Frequency Operation on Power Station Equipment.- 7.3 Effects of Low Frequency Operation on System Load.- 7.4 High — Frequency Operation During Light Load Periods.- Appendix 1: Dispatching and Control Functions at Various Levels.- Appendix 2.- Operating Principles of North American Electric Reliability Council (NERC).- Most Common Terms Used in Power System Operation.