Table of Contents
Preface xiii
1 Application of Organic Functional Additives in Batteries 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Fluorinated Additives 2
1.2.1 Functions of Fluorinated Additives 2
1.2.1.1 Improvement of Safety Performance 2
1.2.1.2 SEI-Forming Additives 2
1.2.1.3 High Oxidation Stability 4
1.2.1.4 Promotion of the Formation of Anion-Rich Solvation Structure 5
1.2.1.5 Reduction of Desolvation Barrier 6
1.2.2 Synergies of Fluoroethylene Carbonate with Other Compounds 6
1.2.2.1 Fluoroethylene Carbonate and Other Fluorinated Electrolytes 6
1.2.2.2 Fluoroethylene Carbonate and Lewis Base 7
1.2.2.3 Fluoroethylene Carbonate and Glyme 7
1.2.3 Drawbacks of Fluoroethylene Carbonate 8
1.2.3.1 Generation of HF Gas 8
1.2.3.2 Increase of Impedance and Loss of Impedance 8
1.2.3.3 Incompatibility with Other Electrodes 8
1.2.3.4 Recycling Issues 9
1.3 Nitro Additive 9
1.3.1 Functions of Nitro (NO − 3) 9
1.3.1.1 Participation in Solvation and Desolvation Structures 9
1.3.1.2 Formation of Inorganic-Rich SEI 10
1.3.1.3 CEI-Forming Additives 12
1.3.1.4 Functions in Lithium–Sulfur Batteries 13
1.3.1.5 Stabilization of Water Molecules 14
1.3.2 Organic Nitro Additive 14
1.3.2.1 Complex Nitrate-Based Additives 14
1.3.2.2 Complex Nitro-Based Additives 15
1.3.3 Drawbacks and Solutions of Nitro Additives 15
1.3.3.1 Low Solubility 15
1.3.3.2 Sacrificial Additives 17
1.3.3.3 High Decomposition Activation Energy of LiNO 3 18
1.4 Nitrile Additives 19
1.4.1 Functions of Nitrile Additives 19
1.4.1.1 Plasticization 19
1.4.1.2 Facilitation of Ion Transport 20
1.4.1.3 Promotion of Lithium Salt Dissolution 22
1.4.1.4 Widening of the Electrochemical Window 22
1.4.1.5 Inhibiting the Decomposition of the Electrolyte 22
1.4.1.6 Low Flammability 22
1.4.1.7 Improvement of Polymer Flexibility 23
1.4.1.8 Modification of the Cathode Interface 23
1.4.1.9 Involvement in the Solvation Structure of Zn 2+ 24
1.4.1.10 Weakening of Ionic Association 24
1.4.1.11 Contribution to the Formation of SEI 24
1.4.2 Compatibility Analysis of Nitrile and Lithium Metal 25
1.4.2.1 Incompatibility of Nitrile and Lithium Metal 25
1.4.2.2 Improvement of the Compatibility of Nitrile and Lithium Metal 25
1.4.3 Other Drawbacks of Nitrile Additives 28
1.4.3.1 Low Mechanical Strength 28
1.4.3.2 Prone to Polymerization 28
1.4.3.3 Crystallinity 28
1.5 Phosphate Ester Additives 29
1.5.1 Functions of Phosphate Ester Additives 29
1.5.1.1 Flame Retardant 29
1.5.1.2 Stabilization of Cathodes and Anodes 30
1.5.1.3 Involvement in Solvation Structure Regulation 31
1.5.2 Drawbacks of Phosphate Ester 32
1.5.2.1 Incompatibility with Anodes 32
1.5.2.2 Improvement of the Compatibility of Phosphate Ester and Lithium Metal 32
1.6 Sulfate Ester Additives 34
1.6.1 Functions of Sulfate Ester Additives 34
1.6.1.1 SEI-Forming Additives 34
1.6.1.2 CEI-Forming Additives 36
1.7 Conclusion and Outlook 39
References 40
2 Application of Biopolymers in Batteries 51
2.1 Introduction 51
2.2 Overview of Biopolymers 53
2.2.1 Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC) 53
2.2.2 Chitosan (CS) 54
2.2.3 Sodium Alginate (SA) 56
2.2.4 Lignin 57
2.2.5 Gum Arabic (GA) 57
2.2.6 Guar Gum (GG) 59
2.2.7 Xanthan Gum (XG) 59
2.2.8 Starch 60
2.2.9 Gelatin 61
2.2.10 Tragacanth Gum (TG) 62
2.2.11 Cellulose (CLS) 63
2.2.12 Trehalose (THL) 64
2.2.13 Citrulline (Cit) 64
2.2.14 Pectin 65
2.2.15 Carrageenan 66
2.3 Application of Biopolymers in Binders 66
2.3.1 Carboxymethyl Cellulose 67
2.3.2 Chitosan 68
2.3.3 Sodium Alginate 70
2.3.4 Lignin 72
2.3.5 Gum Arabic 74
2.3.6 Guar Gum and Xanthan Gum 75
2.3.7 Starch 75
2.3.8 Gelatin 76
2.3.9 Tragacanth Gum (TG) 78
2.4 Application of Biopolymers in Electrolytes 79
2.4.1 Cellulose 79
2.4.2 Chitosan 81
2.4.3 Lignin 82
2.4.4 Gelatin 85
2.5 Application of Biopolymers in Electrolyte Additives 87
2.5.1 Cellulose 88
2.5.2 Trehalose 88
2.5.3 Citrulline 89
2.5.4 Pectin 90
2.6 Application of Biopolymers in Separators 90
2.6.1 Cellulose 91
2.6.2 Starch 94
2.6.3 Carrageenan 95
2.7 Application of Biopolymers in Anode Functional Layers 95
2.7.1 Cellulose 96
2.7.2 Chitosan and Sodium Alginate 96
2.8 Conclusion and Outlook 98
References 100
3A Application of Synthetic Polymers in Batteries: Carbon-chain Polymers 107
3A.1 Introduction 107
3A.2 Overview of Synthetic Polymers Materials 107
3A.2.1 Polyvinylidene Difluoride (PVDF) 108
3A.2.2 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 109
3A.2.3 Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR) 110
3A.2.4 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) 111
3A.2.5 Polyacrylics (PA) 111
3A.2.6 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) 112
3A.2.7 Polyvinyl Pyrrolidone (PVP) 113
3A.2.8 Polyolefin (PO) 114
3A.3 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Binders 115
3A.3.1 Polyvinylidene Difluoride 115
3A.3.2 Polytetrafluoroethylene 117
3A.3.3 Styrene-Butadiene Rubber 118
3A.3.4 Polyvinyl Alcohol 119
3A.3.5 Polyacrylics 122
3A.4 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Electrolytes 124
3A.4.1 Polyvinylidene Difluoride 125
3A.4.2 Polyacrylonitrile 129
3A.4.3 Polyacrylics 131
3A.4.4 Polyvinyl Alcohol 133
3A.5 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Battery Separators 135
3A.5.1 Polyolefin 136
3A.5.2 Polyvinylidene Difluoride 138
3A.5.3 Polyacrylonitrile 139
3A.5.4 Polyvinyl Alcohol 140
3A.6 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Anodes 142
3A.6.1 Polyacrylonitrile 142
3A.6.2 Polyacrylics 143
3A.7 Conclusions and Outlook 143
References 145
3B Application of Synthetic Polymers in Batteries: Hetero-chain Polymers 155
3B.1 Introduction 155
3B.2 Overview of Synthetic Polymers Materials 155
3B.2.1 Epoxy Resin (EPR) 156
3B.2.2 Polyethylenimine (PEI) 157
3B.2.3 Polyurethane (PU) 158
3B.2.4 Polyethylene Oxide (PEO) 158
3B.2.5 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) 159
3B.2.6 Polyimide (PI) 160
3B.3 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Binders 161
3B.3.1 Epoxy Resin 161
3B.3.2 Polyethylenimine 162
3B.3.3 Polyurethane 164
3B.3.4 Polyimide 166
3B.4 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Electrolytes 167
3B.4.1 Epoxy Resin 167
3B.4.2 Polyurethane 170
3B.4.3 Polyethylene Oxide 173
3B.4.4 Polyimide 176
3B.5 Application of Synthetic Polymers in Battery Separators 178
3B.5.1 Polyethylene Terephthalate 178
3B.5.2 Polyimide 179
3B.6 Conclusions and Outlook 180
References 182
4 Application of Nontraditional Organic Ionic Conductors in Batteries 189
4.1 Ionic Liquids 189
4.1.1 Introduction of Ionic Liquids 189
4.1.2 Development of Ionic Liquids 190
4.1.3 Catalog of Ionic Liquids 191
4.1.4 Advantages of Ionic Liquids for Batteries 193
4.1.5 Synthesis and Characterization Method of Ionic Liquids 193
4.1.6 Application of Ionic Liquids 194
4.2 Application of ILs in Batteries 196
4.2.1 Ionic Liquid Electrolyte 198
4.2.2 Ionic Liquid/Organic Solvent Electrolyte 206
4.2.3 Organic–Inorganic Composite Ionic Liquid Electrolyte 210
4.3 Single-Ion Conductive 215
4.3.1 Introduction of Single-Ion Conductive 215
4.3.2 Catalog of Single-Ion Conductive 216
4.4 Application of Single-Ion Conductive in Batteries 217
4.4.1 Organic Single-Ion Conductor Electrolyte 217
4.4.2 Organic–Inorganic Composite Single-Ion Conductor Electrolyte 225
4.5 Conclusions and Outlook 228
References 230
5 Application of Self-Healing Materials in Batteries 239
5.1 Introduction 239
5.1.1 The Need for Battery Innovation 239
5.1.2 Overview of Self-Healing Materials 239
5.1.3 Benefits of Self-Healing Technologies in Batteries 240
5.1.4 Challenges in Scaling and Commercializing Self-Healing Materials 242
5.2 Types of Self-Healing Materials for Battery Applications 243
5.2.1 Physically Bonded Self-Healing Materials 243
5.2.2 Chemically Bonded Self-Healing Materials 243
5.2.3 Composite Self-Healing Materials with Multiple Repair Mechanisms 244
5.3 Applications of Self-Healing Materials in Batteries 244
5.3.1 Gel Polymer Electrolytes 244
5.3.2 Solid Polymer Electrolytes 256
5.3.3 Composite Electrolytes 272
5.3.4 Electrode Binders 275
5.4 Conclusions and Outlook 281
References 282
6 Application of Low-Dimensional Materials in Batteries 287
6.1 Introduction 287
6.1.1 Lithium-Metal Batteries 287
6.1.2 Low-Dimensional Composite Materials 288
6.2 Low-Dimensional Composite Cathode Materials 289
6.2.1 Composite Methods for Low-Dimensional Cathode Materials 290
6.2.2 One-Dimensional Materials in Cathode 293
6.2.2.1 Carbon Nanotube (CNT) Materials 293
6.2.2.2 Carbon Nanofiber (CNF) Materials 297
6.2.3 Two-Dimensional Materials in Cathode 299
6.2.3.1 Graphene Materials 299
6.2.3.2 MXene Materials 304
6.3 Low-Dimensional Composite Materials in Separators 309
6.3.1 Zero-Dimensional Materials in Separators 310
6.3.2 One-Dimensional Materials in Separators 312
6.3.3 Two-Dimensional Materials in Separators 315
6.4 Low-Dimensional Composite Current Collectors 320
6.4.1 Design of Current Collector 320
6.4.2 Nanocomposite Current Collectors 322
6.5 Low-Dimensional Composite Anode Materials 324
6.5.1 Formation of SEI and Failure Mechanism 324
6.5.2 Nanocomposite Lithium Metal Anodes 325
6.5.3 Low-Dimensional Materials in 3D-Printing Anodes 328
6.6 Conclusion and Outlook 329
References 330
7 Applications of Porous Organic Framework Materials in Batteries 339
7.1 Introduction 339
7.1.1 Overview of Energy Demand and Battery Technologies 339
7.1.2 Limitations of Traditional Battery Material 339
7.1.3 Potential of Porous Organic Framework Materials for Energy Storage 340
7.2 Types of Porous Organic Framework Materials 341
7.2.1 Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) 341
7.2.1.1 Types of MOFs 342
7.2.2 Covalent Organic Frameworks (COFs) 342
7.2.2.1 Types of COFs 343
7.2.3 Hydrogen-Bonded Organic Frameworks (HOFs) 343
7.2.3.1 Types of HOF 343
7.3 Applications of Porous Organic Framework Materials in Batteries 345
7.3.1 Applications in Electrode Materials 345
7.3.1.1 MOF as Electrode Materials 345
7.3.1.2 COF as Electrode Materials 352
7.3.1.3 HOF as Electrode Materials 356
7.3.2 Applications in Electrolytes and Electrolyte Additives 359
7.3.2.1 MOF as Electrolytes and Electrolyte Additives 359
7.3.2.2 COF as Electrolytes and Electrolyte Additives 364
7.3.2.3 HOF as Electrolytes and Electrolyte Additives 367
7.3.3 Applications in Catalysts and Catalyst Supports 368
7.3.3.1 MOF as Catalysts and Catalyst Supports 368
7.3.3.2 COF as Catalysts and Catalyst Supports 371
7.3.3.3 HOF as Catalysts and Catalyst Supports 373
7.3.4 Applications in Battery Separators 374
7.3.4.1 MOF as Battery Separator 374
7.3.4.2 COF as Battery Separator 378
7.3.4.3 HOF as Battery Separator 380
7.4 Conclusion and Outlook 381
7.4.1 Conclusion 381
7.4.2 Outlook 382
References 383
Index 389
