Table of Contents

Avesta. Ancient Persian Inscriptions. Middle Persian Literature.- I. Ancient Eastern-Iranian Culture.- A. The Beginnings of Iranian Culture.- B. The First States.- C. Zarathushtra.- D. Avesta.- 1. The Gāthās.- 2. Yaspa, Visprat.- 3. The Yashts.- 4. Vidēvdāt.- 5. Minor Texts.- 6. Traditions regarding the Origin of the Avesta.- 7. Beginnings of Iranian Philology. Significance of the Avesta.- II. The Culture of the Ancient Medes and Persians.- A. The Medes and Persians.- B. The Achaemenids. Character of their Government and Languages of their Realm.- C. The Inscriptions of the Achaemenids.- D. Traces of the Lost Literature.- E. Old Persian Learning in Europe.- III. The Middle Persian Era.- A. The Arsacids.- 1. Alexander the Great, the Seleucids, the Parthians.- 2. The Literature of the Parthian Era.- 3. The Earliest Records of Middle Iranian Literature.- 4. Middle Iranian Dialects.- 5. Inscriptions from Arsacid Times.- 6. Coins of the Pre-Sasanian Period.- B. The Sasanians.- 1. Inscriptions.- 2. Other Records. Seals, Gems, Coins, Documents.- C. Middle Persian Book-Literature.- 1. Pahlavi Literature.- 2. Middle Persian Translations of the Avesta (Zand).- D. Religious Pahlavi Literature.- 1. Religious Texts.- 2. The Andarz Books. Moralising, Apocalyptic, and Eschatological Literature.- 3. Collections of Traditions and Polemic Treatises.- E. Secular Literature.- 1. Historical Belles-Lettres.- 2. Instructive Works on Political Affairs.- 3. Legal Writings. Papyri.- 4. The Frahangs.- 5. Poetry in the Middle Persian Period. Lyrical Poetry and Music.- 6. Foreign Influences in Middle Persian Literature.- 7. Persian Influences on other Literatures.- 8. Literature of the last Century of the Sasanian Era.- 9. Literature of the Sectarians and Dissenters. Zurvanism. Christianity 59 10. Middle Iranian Manuscripts.- F. Discoveries m Central Asia.- 1. Manichaean Documents.- 2. Sogdian Literature.- 3. Remains of Khvarezmian Literature.- 4. Sakian Literature.- IV. The Period of Transition to New Persian Literature (The Advance of Islam and the Beginnings of New Persian).- History of Persian literature up to the Beginning of the 20th Century.- I. Introduction.- A. The Persian Language (Darī).- 1. The Arabising of Persian.- 2. The Relation of Dialects to Persian Literature.- 3. The Script.- B. National Individuality.- 1. The Conception of Unity and its Reverse - Regionalism.- 2. Religious Elation and its Nature.- 3. The Shfa.- 4. The Tolerance of Persian Poetry.- 5. Adaptability and late Europeanisation.- 6. Artistic Perceptibility, Nature, and inborn Disposition for Poetry.- 7. The Spirit of Islam.- 8. The Relationship between Poetry and Prose. Problems of Literary History.- 9. The Influence of Sufism.- 10. Lack of Humour. The ‘Satire’.- 11. The Influence of Despotism and Feudalism.- 12. Extravagance.- 13. Eros and its Expression: Allegory and Symbolism. Abstract Character of the Lyric. Homosexuality.- C. Conservatism and Convention in Persian Literature.- 1. The Connection with Feudalism.- 2. Official Islam as a restraining Factor.- 3. Conservatism of the Oriental Conception of the Relation between.- Word and Thought.- 4. The Difficulties of the Westerner in Comprehending Persian and other Oriental Authors.- 5. Men of Genius and Epigones: The European School.- D. Poetry and its Forms.- 1. The Outward Form.- a. Fundamental Concepts.- b. Metrics.- c. Rhyme in Relation to Form.- (1) Forms of Lyric Poetry.- (2) Substance of Lyrical Forms.- (3) The Form of the Epic and Didactic Poem.- d. Strictness of Form. Efficiency of the System.- e. Takhallus.- 2. The Inward Form of the Poetry.- Characteristic Embellishments. Excess of Rhetoric.- b. Prerequisites for the Poet.- c. Peculiarities in the Train of Thought.- d. Craftsmanlike Modelling of the Form.- e. The Attitude of the Older Orientalists.- f. Applicability of the Old Forms to Modern Life.- g. Exclusive Nature of the Poetry.- h. The Nature of Poetical Experience.- j. The Specific Nature of Persian Poetry.- k. Poets’ Centres and the Division of Poetry into Periods.- E. Prose.- 1. The Range of Persian Literature no.- 2. Styles of Poetry as interpreted by M. Bahār and S. Nafīsī.- 3. The Development of Literature in Political-historical Sequence.- 4. Muhammad Bahār’s Classification of Prose into Periods according to Style.- 5. Zarre’s Division into Periods.- 6. Sources for the History of Persian Literature.- II. The Beginnings of Persian Literature.- A. The Arab Occupation.- 1. The Ancient Culture and its Continuation.- 2. The Existence of a Middle Persian Poetry.- 3. The First Specimens of Persian Verse. Continuity of Middle and New Persian Verse.- B. The Poets of the Tahirid and Saffarid Periods.- C. Continuous Flow of Literature. Persian Writers in Arabic Literature (750–850).- III. The Samanids (Middle of 3rd/9th century to end of 4th/10th).- A. Literature in the Samanid Period.- 1. Points of Contact between Persian and Contemporaneous Arabic Poetry. Character of the Latter. Fundamental Traits of the Earliest Period in Persian Poetry.- Some Names.- 3. Rūdakī, (Daqīqī), Kis?‹?.- 4. Provincial Poets at the Courts of the Āl-i Muhtāj in Chaghāniyān, Ziyarids and Buyids.- 5. General Characteristics of the First Period.- B. The Earliest Monuments.- 1. The Earliest Poetry and Prose, including the Works of Avicenna and Al-Bīrūnī.- C. The Epic Tradition of Iran.- D. Daqīqī.- E. Firdausī.- F. Epic Poems connected with the Shāh-nāma.- G. Persian Authors in Arabic Literature (850–1000).- IV. The Ghaznavid Period (5th/11th century).- A. Yamīnu›d-Daula Sultān Mahmūd of Ghazna.- B. Mahmūd’s Attitude to Culture.- C. The Panegyric Poets under Mahmūd and his Successors.- D. The Romantic Epic.- E. Avicenna - his Importance and his Influence.- V. The Seljuq Period (5th/11th to 6th/12th century).- A. The Rise of Panegyrism under Sultān Sanjar and during the Disintegration of the Seljuq Supremacy.- B. Nāsir-i Khusrau.- C. ‹Omar Khayyām.- D. The Panegyric Poets.- 1. Qatrān (Azerbayjan).- 2. Mu‹izz? and Azraqī (at the Seljuq Court).- 3. Mas‹?d-i Sa‹d-i Salman, Hasan Ghaznavī-i and Abu’l-Faraj Rūnī (Ghaznavid India).- 4 Adīb Sabir, Anvarī and Mahsatī (at the Court of the Seljuqs).- 5. ‹Am‹aq (Bukhara).- 6. Rashld Vatvat (Khvarazm).- E. The School of Azerbayjan.- F. The Epic Poet Nizamī and his Imitators Amir Khusrau and Maktabī.- G. The Isfahan School: Jamalu'-dīn, Kamalu'-dīn Isma’il.- H. The Satirist Suzani.- VI. The Prose of the Seljuq Period (5th–6th/11th–12th century).- A. On the Border-line between Learned Literature (or Instruction) and Belles-Lettres.- B. Belles-Lettres.- C. Historical Works in Prose.- D. Iranian Writers of Arabic (1000–1200 A.D.).- VII.Ṣūfīsm.- A. Origin, Development and Ideology of Ṣūfīsm.- B. Groups and Schools. Ritual.- C.Ṣūfī Symbolism.- D. Beneficial and deleterious Effects of Ṣūfīsm on Culture.- E. The Quatrain Poets: Abū-Sa‹?d b. Abi‹l-Khayr, (Bābā Kūhī), Bābā Tāhir ‹Uryān, Ansārī, Bābā Afdal.- F. The Great Ṣūfīs: San?›?, ‹Attār, Maulavī.- VIII. The Mongols.- A. Sa‹d?. The Rise of the Ghazal.- B. Sa‹d?’s Contemporaries.- C. Nizārī.- D. Indo-Persian Literature: Amīr Khusrau, Najmu›-dīn Hasan Sanjarī.- E. Panegyric Poets at the Smaller Courts: Khvājū, Ibn-i Yamīn, Salmān Sāvajī.- F. The Lyric Poet Kamāl Khujandī.- G. Hāfiz’ the Ghazal at its Summit.- H. Hāfiz’ Environment in Shiraz.- IX. Tümūr and His Successors.- A. Cultural and Literary Life.- B. Lyric and Epic Poetry under the Timurids.- C. Jāmī.- D. Outside Herat. Bābā Fighānī and his Influence. Lisānī.- X. The Safavids.- A. The Literature of this Epoch.- 1. The ‘Indian’ Style.- 2. The Classicists.- B. Poets of the Safavid Period.- C. Subsequent Development of the Indian Style.- D. S?›ib, Shaukat, Bīdil.- XI. The Turbulent 12th/l8th Century.- A. Shiraz, Political Centre in the Second Half of the 12th/18th Century; ‘Return’ (Bāz-Gasht) in Isfahan.- B. Hazīn.- C. Shihāb.- XII. Literary and Associated Species of Prose During the 7th–12th/13th–18th Centuries.- A. Two Trends in Style: Extravagance and Simplicity.- B. Husayn V?‹iz; The Moral Philosophers.- C. Vassāf (8th/14th Century) and his Imitator Mahdī-Khān (12th/18th Century).- 1. Indian Essay-Writing; Insha, ‘Letter-Writing’, ‘Model Letters’; Tadhkiras, etc..- 2. Belles-Lettres.- 3. Scholarly Works.- XIII. THE 13th/19th Century.- A. General Characteristics of the Century.- B. Continuation of the Epigone ‘Return’ Movement with its Tendency towards Simplicity.- C. 1800–1830.- D. 1830–1850.- 1. Panegyrists: Q?›?n?, Visāl, Furūghī.- 2. The Reaction to the Degeneration of the Social Order. The Satirist Yaghmà.- 3. The First Prose-Reformer: Q?›im-Maqām. The Diaries of Nāsiru›d-dīn and their Importance.- E. Second Half of the 13th/19th Century.- 1. Book-Printing.- 2. The Press.- 3. D?ru›l-Funūn and its First Director, Ridā-Qulī-Khān Hidāyat.- 4. The Development of Learned Prose. Translations from Literature of the West.- 5. Trends towards Popularisation and Pro-Russian Reaction to the Occidental Cult. Tālibūf.- 6. The Sole Philosopher of the 13th/19th Century: Hādī Sabzavārī.- 7. Classicism in Poetry, occasionally with Contemporary Themes: Sipihr, Huma, Surūsh, Shāybanī, Shārīda, Adīb Nīshāpūrī.- 8. Adīb?›l-Mamālik.- Persian Literature of the 20th Century.- I. Brief Survey of The Economico-Political Situation in Iran After 1896 355.- A. Struggle for a Constitution and Fall of the Qajars in the Period 1896–1921.- B. The Rise of Ridā Khān and his Path to Power.- C. Changes in Home and Foreign Policy after 1941.- II. Character of the Literary Renaissance.- A. The Press and its Role in the Literature of the Constitutional Period.- B. The Beginnings of Modern Prose.- C. Important Poets of the Constitutional Period.- III. Literary Life in the Years 1921–1941.- A. Literary Reviews between 1921 and 1941.- B. The Main Trends in Poetry.- C. Persian Prose and the Rise of the Modern Short Story.- IV. The Main Literary Trends After 1941.- A. Important Literary and Cultural Periodicals of Recent Years.- B. Brief Survey of Contemporary Persian Poetry.- C. Persian Prose after 1941.- 1. The Novel and the Short Story with Historical Themes.- 2. Social Themes in Modern Prose.- 3. The Chief Representatives of the Short Story.- Persian Learned Literature From Its Beginnings up to the End of the 18th Century.- I. Introduction.- II.Philosophy.- III.Philology.- IV.History and biography.- V.Geography.- VI. The exact sciences.- VII. The natural sciences.- VIII. Medicine and pharmacology.- IX. Encyclopaedias.- Tajik Literature From the 16th Century to the Present.- I. Before the Revolution.- A. Introduction 485B. The Parting of Iran and Central Asia.- C. Characteristics of Tajik Literature from the 16th to the Early 20th 487 Centuries.- D. The Study of Tajik Literature.- E. Periodisation.- F. The 16th Century.- 1. Political and Economic Survey.- 2. Literature.- a. ‘Sabki hind’.- b. Binoī.- c. Hilolī.- d. Vosifī.- e. Mushfiqī.- G. The 17th Century.- 1. Historical Survey.- 2. Literature.- a. Poetry of the Town Craftsmen.- b. Salido.- H. The 18th Century up to the Russian Occupation of Central Asia.- 1. Historical Survey.- 2. Literature 512.- a. Bedil and Bedilism.- J. From the Russian Occupation to the October Revolution.- 1.Historical Survey.- a. Jadidism.- b. The Effect of the Russian Occupation of Central Asia.- 2. Literature.- a. Folk-Poetry.- b. Donish.- c. Savdo.- d. Shohin.- e. Haírat.- f. Asirī.- g. Aín?.- II. After the Revolution.- A. Introduction.- B. Political Development.- C. Influences.- D. Characteristics of Soviet Tajik Literature 55°.- E. Division into Periods.- 1. Development from 1917 to 1929.- 2. From 1929 to 1941.- 3. From 1941 to 1945.- 4. From 1945 to the Present.- F. The Founders of Soviet Tajik Literature.- 1. Sadriddin Aín?.- 2. Abulqosim Lohutī.- 3. Other Members of the First Generation.- 4. Javharī and the Poetess Ozod.- G. The Second Generation.- 1. Prose.- 2. Poetry.- H. The ‘Third’ and ‘Fourth’ Generations.- 1. Poetry.- 2. Prose 588.- J. The Drama.- 1. From 1933 to 1941.- 2. From 1941 to 1945.- 3. From 1945 up to the Present.- K. The Folk-Poets.- L. The Study of Tajik Literature.- M. The Press.- Iranian Folk-Literature.- I. Introduction.- A. Contrasts between Folk-Literature and Polite Literature.- B. Directions of Development of Iranian Folk-Literature.- C. The Importance of Folk-Literature.- II. Iranian Folk-Epics.- A. Iranian Epical Subjects as conveyed by Classical Authors.- B. Iranian Folk-Epics in Pre-Islamic Times.- C. Iranian Subjects adopted in Arabic Literature.- D. Folklore Foundations of Iranian Epical Poetry.- E. Folklore Foundations of Iranian Romantic Epics.- F. The Gūrughlī Epic Cycle and other Subjects of Iranian Folk-Epics.- G. The Ossetian Nart Sagas and their Importance.- H. The dāstāns - their Development and Connections.- III. Introduction to Folk-Tales.- A. Iranian Folk-Tales and Problems arising from them.- B. Iranian Folk-Humour.- IV. Iranian Entertainment Folk-Literature.- A. Collections of Fables, particularly Kalīla and Dimna.- B. ‘Mirrors for Princes’ and other Entertaining and Instructive Literature.- C. The Iranian Element in the Book of A Thousand and One Nights and Similar Collections.- D. The Thousand and One Days.- V. Written Forms of Folk-Literature.- A. Folk-Books - the Forerunners of Folk-Prints.- B. Folk-Prints in General.- C. Fantastic Romances of Chivalry in Folk-Print Form.- D. Short Stories in Folk-Prints.- E. Folk-Tales in Folk-Prints.- F. Dream-Books and Handbooks for Astrologers and Fortune-Tellers.- VI. The Influence of Folk-Literature in Modern Persian and Tajik Literature.- VII. Religious Folk-Literature.- A. Religious Folk-Literature and its Relations to Folk-Tradition.- B. Religious Folk-Literature as Primary Stage in Iranian Folk-Drama.- VIII. Dramatic Folk-Literature in Iran.- A. The ta‹ziyas and other Religious Festivals and their Development.- B. ‹Umar-kushān, Religious Parody and Farce.- C. Folk-Farces.- D. Iranian Buffoons and their Productions.- E. Shadow Plays.- F. Glove Puppet Theatres.- G. Marionette Theatres.- H. Modern Drama and its Connections with Folk-Literature.- IX. Verse Forms of Folk-Literature.- A. Folk-Quatrains.- B. Lyric and Epic Folk-Songs.- C. Folk-Couplets, Counting-Out and Nursery Rhymes.- X. Riddles and Proverbs.- XI. Conclusion.- Persian Literature in India.- A. First Contacts between Iran and India in the Field of Literature. The Age of Mahmūd Ghaznavī and Muhammad Ghōrī.- B. Literary Relations become closer. The Sultanate of Delhi.- 1. Hasan of Delhi.- 2. The Court of Sikandar Lōdī.- C. The Golden Age of Indo-Persian Literature. The Age of the Moguls.- 1. The Age of Akbar.- 2. The Age of Jahāngīr.- 3. The Court of Shāhjahān.- 4. The Age of Aurangzeb. The Decline of the Mogul Empire.- D. The Retrogression of Persian as the Literary Language of India. The Poets as Bilinguists.- An Outline of Judeo-Persian Literature.- Survey of Dynasties.- Selected Bibliography.- Addenda.