Table of Contents
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xiv
About the Authors xiv
Introduction: The Five-Step Program xv
Step 1 Set Up Your Study Program
1 What You Need to Know About the AP Chemistry Exam 3
Background of the Advanced Placement Program 3
Who Writes the AP Chemistry Exam? 4
The AP Grades and Who Receives Them 4
Reasons for Taking the AP Chemistry Exam 4
Questions Frequently Asked About the AP Chemistry Exam 5
2 How to Plan Your Time 11
Three Approaches to Preparing for the AP Chemistry Exam 11
Calendar for Each Plan 14
Step 2 Determine Your Test Readiness
3 Take a Diagnostic Exam 19
Getting Started: The Diagnostic Exam 20
AP Chemistry Final Practice Exam, Section I (Multiple Choice) 21
Answers and Explanations for Final Practice Exam, Section I (Multiple Choice) 34
AP Chemistry Final Practice Exam, Section II (Free Response) 41
Answers and Explanations for Final Practice Exam, Section II (Free Response) 47
Scoring and Interpretation 56
Step 3 Develop Strategies for Success
4 How to Approach Each Question Type 59
Multiple-Choice Questions 59
Free-Response Questions 62
Step 4 Review the Knowledge You Need to Score High
5 Basics 69
Units and Measurements 70
Dimensional Analysis-the Factor Label Method 71
The States of Matter 72
Phase Diagrams 72
The Structure of the Atom 74
Oxidation Numbers 82
Nomenclature Overview 83
Experiments 89
Common Mistakes to Avoid 89
Review Questions 90
Answers and Explanations 92
Free-Response Question 94
Answer and Explanation 94
Rapid Review 95
6 Stoichiometry 97
Moles and Molar Mass 98
Percent Composition and Empirical Formulas 98
Introduction to Reactions 100
Reaction Stoichiometry 100
Limiting Reactants 102
Percent Yield 103
Molarity and Solution Calculations 104
Experiments 104
Common Mistakes to Avoid 105
Review Questions 105
Answers and Explanations 108
Free-Response Question 111
Answer and Explanation 112
Rapid Review 113
7 Spectroscopy, Light, and Electrons 115
The Nature of Light 116
Spectroscopy and the Electromagnetic Spectrum 117
Beer-Lambert Law 118
Wave Properties of Matter 119
Atomic Spectra 119
Atomic Orbitals 120
Photoelectron (Photoemission) Spectroscopy (PES) 122
Experiments 122
Common Mistakes to Avoid 122
Review Questions 123
Answers and Explanations 124
Free-Response Question 125
Answer and Explanation 126
Rapid Review 127
8 Bonding 129
Lewis Electron-Dot Structures 130
Ionic and Covalent Bonding 130
Molecular Geometry-VSEPR 134
Valence Bond Theory 137
Molecular Orbital Theory 138
Resonance 140
Bond Length, Strength, and Magnetic Properties 141
Structure of Metals and Alloys 141
Experiments 143
Common Mistakes to Avoid 143
Review Questions 144
Answers and Explanations 146
Free-Response Question 147
Answer and Explanation 148
Rapid Review 149
9 Solids, Liquids, and Intermolecular Forces 151
Structures and Intermolecular Forces 152
The Liquid State 154
The Solid State 155
Relationship of Intermolecular Forces to Phase Changes 157
Potential Energy 158
Experiments 159
Common Mistakes to Avoid 159
Review Questions 159
Answers and Explanations 162
Free-Response Question 163
Answer and Explanation 163
Rapid Review 164
10 Gases 165
Kinetic Molecular Theory 166
Gas Law Relationships 167
Experiments 177
Common Mistakes to Avoid 179
Review Questions 180
Answers and Explanations 182
Free-Response Question 184
Answer and Explanation 185
Rapid Review 186
11 Solutions 187
Concentration Units 188
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes 190
Colligative Properties 191
Colloids 193
Composition of Mixtures 194
Separation of Solutions and Mixtures Chromatography 195
Experiments 196
Common Mistakes to Avoid 197
Review Questions 197
Answers and Explanations 199
Free-Response Questions 201
Answers and Explanations 202
Rapid Review 202
12 Reactions and Periodicity 205
AP Exam Format 206
General Aspects of Chemical Reactions and Equations 206
General Properties of Aqueous Solutions 208
Precipitation Reactions 209
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 210
Coordination Compounds 214
Acid-Base Reactions 215
Experiments 219
Common Mistakes to Avoid 219
Review Questions 220
Answers and Explanations 222
Free-Response Question 223
Answer and Explanation 223
Rapid Review 223
13 Kinetics 225
How Reactions Occur-Collision Model 226
Rates of Reaction 227
Integrated Rate Laws 230
Reaction Energy Profile 232
Activation Energy 233
Reaction Mechanisms 233
Steady-State Approximation 234
Multistep Reaction Energy Profile 234
Catalysts 234
Experiments 236
Common Mistakes to Avoid 236
Review Questions 237
Answers and Explanations 239
Free-Response Question 241
Answer and Explanation 241
Rapid Review 243
14 Thermodynamics 245
Energy Diagrams 246
Heat Transfer and Thermal Equilibrium 246
Calorimetry 247
Energy of Phase Changes 249
Introduction to Enthalpy of Reaction 250
Bond Enthalpies 251
Laws of Thermodynamics 252
Hess's Law 252
Enthalpies of Formation 254
Thermodynamics and Equilibrium 257
Thermodynamic and Kinetic Control 257
Coupled Reactions 257
Experiments 258
Common Mistakes to Avoid 258
Review Questions 259
Answers and Explanations 262
Free-Response Question 264
Answer and Explanation 264
Rapid Review 265
15 Equilibrium 267
Equilibrium Expressions 269
Magnitude of the Equilibrium Constant 269
Properties of the Equilibrium Constant 270
Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations 271
Representations of Equilibrium 273
Le Châtelier's Principle 274
Solubility Equilibria 277
Common-Ion Effect 279
pH and Solubility 279
Free Energy of Dissolution 280
Other Equilibria 281
Common Mistakes to Avoid 281
Review Questions 282
Answers and Explanations 283
Free-Response Question 285
Answer and Explanation 285
Rapid Review 287
16 Acids and Bases 289
Acid-Base Equilibrium 290
Ka-the Acid Dissociation Constant 292
Kw-the Water Dissociation Constant 293
Molecular Structure of Acids and Bases 294
pH 295
Kb-the Base Dissociation Constant 296
Acidic/Basic Properties of Salts 298
Buffers 299
Acid-Base Reactions and Buffers 301
Titration Equilibria 302
Experiments 307
Common Mistakes to Avoid 307
Review Questions 308
Answers and Explanations 310
Free-Response Question 311
Answer and Explanation 312
Rapid Review 313
17 Electrochemistry 315
Redox Reactions 316
Electrochemical Cells 316
Quantitative Aspects of Electrochemistry 323
Nernst Equation 324
Electrolysis and Faraday's Law 326
Experiments 326
Common Mistakes to Avoid 326
Review Questions 327
Answers and Explanations 330
Free-Response Question 331
Answer and Explanation 332
Rapid Review 333
Additional Review and Applications
18 Nuclear Chemistry 337
Nuclear Reactions 338
Natural Radioactive Decay Modes 338
Nuclear Stability 340
Nuclear Decay Calculations 340
Mass-Energy Relationships 341
Common Mistakes to Avoid 342
Review Questions 342
Answers and Explanations 344
Free-Response Question 344
Answer and Explanation 345
Rapid Review 346
19 Organic Chemistry 347
Hydrocarbons 348
Structural Isomerism 348
Common Functional Groups 349
Acid-Base Chemistry 349
Experiments 351
Common Mistakes to Avoid 352
Review Questions 352
Answers and Explanations 353
Free-Response Questions 354
Answers and Explanations 354
Rapid Review 356
20 Experimental Investigations 357
Experiment 1: Spectroscopy 358
Experiment 2: Spectrophotometry 361
Experiment 3: Gravimetric Analysis 362
Experiment 4: Titration 363
Experiment 5: Chromatography 365
Experiment 6: Determination of the Type of Bonding in Solid Samples 366
Experiment 7: Stoichiometry 366
Experiment 8: Redox Titration 367
Experiment 9: Chemical and Physical Changes 369
Experiment 10: Kinetics 369
Experiment 11: Rate Laws 370
Experiment 12: Calorimetry 371
Experiment 13: Chemical Equilibrium-Le Châtelier's Principle 372
Experiment 14: Acid-Base Titrations 373
Experiment 15: Buffer pH 373
Experiment 16: The Capacity of a Buffer 374
Common Mistakes to Avoid 375
Review Questions 375
Answers and Explanations 377
Free-Response Questions 378
Answers and Explanations 381
Rapid Review 385
Step 5 Build Your Test-Taking Confidence
AP Chemistry Practice Exam 1 389
AP Chemistry Practice Exam 1, Section I (Multiple Choice) 391
Answers and Explanations for Exam 1, Section I (Multiple Choice) 404
AP Chemistry Practice Exam 1, Section II (Free Response) 410
Answers and Explanations for Exam 1, Section II (Free Response) 416
AP Chemistry Practice Exam 2 423
AP Chemistry Practice Exam 2, Section I (Multiple Choice) 425
Answers and Explanations for Exam 2, Section I (Multiple Choice) 437
AP Chemistry Practice Exam 2, Section II (Free Response) 443
Answers and Explanations for Exam 2, Section II (Free Response) 447
Appendixes
Pre-AP Diagnostic Exam 457
SI Units 477
Balancing Redox Equations Using the Ion-Electron Method 479
Common Ions 483
Bibliography 486
Websites 486
Glossary 487
Avoiding "Stupid" Mistakes on the Free-Response Section 496
Exam Resources 499
