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CHAPTER 1
Alder
Alder or 'aller' was a valuable tree to our ancestors. All parts of it were exploited to make dyes, including the leaves, bark, wood, catkins and twigs, and they produced a variety of colours – yellow, green, brown, black and red – depending upon the dyeing technique. Sixteenth-century herbalist John Gerard explained that 'the bark is much used of poor country dyers for the dying of coarse cloth, caps, hose and such like into a black colour, whereto it serveth very well.' The dried catkins were used to make an ink, and the astringent alder bark was sometimes employed in the leather industry for tanning.
The tree grows mainly in damp conditions – the seventeenth-century writer John Evelyn described it as 'the most faithful lover of water and boggy places'. When freshly cut, the timber has a characteristic bright orange colour, and although not as extensively used as many other woods, alder has some useful properties. It was soon discovered, for example, that the timber itself was particularly suited to wet conditions where it could retain its integrity for long periods. Neolithic people in the UK are known to have laid down alder logs to support raised structures in the water such as jetties. In the west of England, a Neolithic walkway known as Abbot's Way was constructed to cross the boggy Somerset Levels in safety. Just over 2.5 kilometres long, it joined the sand island of Burtle with the rock island of Westhay and comprises over 30,000 split alder logs or planks.
Roman writers such as Virgil and Lucan record the use of alder for building boats and the city of Ravenna was raised out of the marshy lagoon it inhabited by the use of alder wood piles. Similarly, large parts of Venice are still built on alder timbers, which were driven down beneath the water through soft muddy sediments and into the harder clay underneath the city. In the Netherlands, alder has long been found suitable for constructing the piles for bridges and dykes. An English translation of a sixteenth-century French work, Maison Rustique, records prevailing European views about the value of alder as a building material:
The aller or alder tree ... doth serve ... to lay the foundations of buildings upon, which are laide in the rivers, fennes or other standing waters, because it never rotteth in the water, but lasteth as it were for ever.
In the UK, the roots of alder trees have provided valuable support to river banks by protecting them from erosion and were sometimes deliberately planted there for this purpose; the timber was also chosen for constructing piles to shore up unstable riverbanks. The durability of the wood when wet made alder ideal for manufacturing the barrels needed by the herring industry, especially in Scotland, where one author commented that whole meadows were regularly denuded every year of this type of timber. Alder was used for pit props in damp mine workings, for roofing, and even hollowed out to create wooden pipes to conduct water – something that was regular practice well into the nineteenth century. In addition, compared to many other timbers, alder is less inclined to split, so it could be carved into comparatively long-lasting wooden clogs or handles for tools.
Alder was one of many trees that were coppiced in order to make charcoal, but alder charcoal was accorded the honour of producing the finest domestic charcoal for the production of gunpowder, so it was much in demand. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the proprietors of gunpowder factories in Hounslow, London were so anxious to ensure that they had sufficient ongoing supplies that they maintained large plantations of alder, which were coppiced every five to six years.
Alder had a number of purported medicinal uses. John Gerard explained that in Tudor times, 'the leaves of alder are much used against hot swellings, ulcers, and all inward inflammations, especially of the almonds and kernels of the throat.' Almonds and kernels here refer to the tonsils and glands. Nicholas Culpeper recounts varied additional uses for alder leaves:
The fresh leaves laid upon swellings dissolveth them, and stayeth the inflammations; the leaves put under the bare feet galled with travelling are a great refreshing to them; the said leaves gathered while the morning dew is on them and brought into a chamber troubled with fleas, will gather them thereinto [and] being suddenly cast out will rid the chamber of those troublesome bed-fellows.
In addition, alder beaten into vinegar was said to cure 'the itch', which probably referred to skin infestation with things like lice, fleas and mites.
CHAPTER 2
Apple
The UK is a cold and wet place, which was not entirely conducive to the growing of many varieties of fruit in Anglo-Saxon times. So it is not surprising to learn that the word 'apple' may originally have been a generic word for any kind of fruit growing on a tree. After all, in northern Europe there were not many to choose from. However, as other types of tree fruit became more well known, the term 'apple' was confined to one particular kind of fruit.
The apple tree was probably the first tree to be deliberately grown by humans to produce food. The cultivated apple has the scientific name Malus pumila, although it is sometimes also called Malus domestica. It is not native to the UK or Europe, and seems to have originated in Asia, where its principal wild ancestor, the Central Asian wild apple (Malus sieversii), can still be found. This Asian species was selectively bred by humans to eventually create a new species – the cultivated apple – between 4,000 and 10,000 years ago. As this tree began growing further and further from its original home it acquired additional genetic input from other apple species by hybridisation, including the European wild crab apple (Malus sylvestris), often called the 'wilding' in the past. Today there are over 7,500 varieties of apple around the globe, and it is probably the most common fruit in the world.
A big advantage that apples have over other commonly grown fruits is that they can be carefully stored whole and may last for months without the need for preservation. This was a valuable distinction in the past, when fruit such as cherries, plums and pears had to be eaten within a few days of being picked or they would rot. Apples were so important that some people specialised in selling them. The old-fashioned term 'costermonger' conventionally referred to a street seller of fresh fruit and vegetables, and sometimes other items. Yet in Tudor times the original version of this word was a 'costard-monger', who sold only apples – the costard being a popular large variety of apple.
The commonness and importance of apples is reflected in the ways in which they feature so often in our language. For example, a man's voice box is his Adam's apple; someone who is a bad influence is called a rotten apple; there is a colour known as apple white; New York is The Big Apple; the phrase 'apples and pears' was once Cockney rhyming slang for stairs, and so forth. In addition there are many idioms and proverbs involving the apple: an apple a day keeps the doctor away; as sure as God made little apples; one bad apple spoils the barrel; the apple never falls far from the tree, and many more. One of the most common is the phrase 'the apple of my eye'. This phrase dates back to the early medieval period and arose because the iris was once thought to be a dark orb floating within the eye. Since the iris was believed to have a similar shape to a tiny apple and eyesight was so precious, the phrase 'apple of my eye' came to mean someone highly treasured.
The apple was at the centre of certain superstitions too. One old ritual was to throw the peel of an apple over the head: if it remained whole you would soon be married; if it broke you were to remain single. A similar custom was that the coiled apple peel would reveal the initial of the next person you would fall in love with.
Apples feature prominently in well-known stories of various kinds. The wicked queen gave Snow White a poisoned apple; rivalry between three Greek goddesses over a golden apple triggered the Trojan War; William Tell shot an apple off his son's head with a crossbow; one of the twelve trials of Hercules was to steal some of Zeus's golden apples from his secret garden. However, undoubtedly the most famous of all these mythical tales is the story of Adam and Eve. The snake in the Garden of Eden encouraged Eve to tempt Adam to eat the fruit from the 'tree of knowledge of good and evil'. This went against God's express instructions, and as a result the couple were evicted from paradise. The actual fruit is not specified in the Bible, but longstanding tradition dating back to the earliest centuries of Christianity has represented the tree as an apple tree. This choice was probably made simply because apples were a common fruit in Europe, but it may have been influenced by the fact that the Latin word malus can mean both apple and evil.
A tale that seems to have at least some element of truth is the famous story of Isaac Newton and the apple. According to convention, the young Newton was inspired to create a theory about gravity when he saw an apple fall to the ground from a tree in his mother's garden in Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire. It's a story that he may have embellished over time, but in 1726, a young colleague, William Stukeley, gave this account of a discussion he had with Newton, then an old man, about the event in question:
After dinner, the weather being warm, we went into the garden and drank thea [= tea] under the shade of some apple tree; only he and myself. Amid other discourse, he told me, he was just in the same situation, as when formerly the notion of gravitation came into his mind. Why sh[oul]d that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground, thought he to himself; occasion'd by the fall of an apple, as he sat in contemplative mood.
Why sh[oul]d it not go sideways, or upwards? But constantly to the Earth's centre? Assuredly the reason is, that the Earth draws it. There must be a drawing power in matter. And the sum of the drawing power in the matter of the Earth must be in the Earth's centre, not in any side of the Earth.
Therefore does this apple fall perpendicularly or towards the centre? If matter thus draws matter; it must be proportion of its quantity. Therefore the apple draws the Earth, as well as the Earth draws the apple.
More recently, another famous British scientist has been associated with an apple, but unfortunately for tragic reasons. Alan Turing, the pioneer wartime computer scientist of Bletchley Park fame, was found dead in 1954. The coroner concluded that he had committed suicide with cyanide, which was found on the premises and may have been ingested by eating an apple laced with it, as an apple was found by his body. A criminal conviction for homosexual behaviour had possibly contributed to this sorrowful end to a great man's life.
The popularity of apples in the UK has meant that the country has always had to import some to meet demand. Even in the 1820s, the UK imported an estimated 20,000 bushels of apples from France and the USA. France has been an important influencer of apple production in the UK, and many earlier varieties were imports from there.
However, the UK has produced many apple varieties of its own. The most well-known eating apple from the these shores is Cox's orange pippin, originally grown by horticulturalist Richard Cox at Colnbrook, Buckinghamshire in 1830. The Cox is an important apple in UK fruit history because so many other varieties are descended from it (e.g. Laxton superb, fiesta). It is also the most widely grown dessert apple in the UK.
One of the most famous cooking apples in the world is another UK variety, Bramley. This was grown from seed by a young girl named Mary Anne Brailsford in her garden at Southwell, Nottinghamshire, between 1809 and 1815, but it did not produce apples until 1837. At some point after this, the tree's delicious cooked fruit came to the attention of a gardener named Henry Merryweather who sought permission from the new owner of the house to take cuttings from the tree in order to sell them. The householder, Matthew Bramley, was happy to oblige and the variety was named after him. Other UK apple varieties include discovery, egremont russet, Worcester pearmain and Blenheim orange.
In recent years, some of the most popular apples sold in the UK have originated from New Zealand (braeburn, gala, jazz), the US (golden delicious, jonagold, enterprise), and from Australia (Granny Smith, pink lady). Granny Smith was named after a real person. In the 1860s, Maria Ann Smith from New South Wales threw out into her yard some old apple waste, and one of the pips germinated. The apples from the tree were an unusually bright green, had a good taste, could be cooked or eaten raw, and stored remarkably well. So, she started selling them. Mrs Smith was by then a grandmother and 'Granny Smith's' apples sold in large numbers. As a result, everyone wanted to grow their own and they were soon planted commercially, eventually becoming a worldwide bestseller.
Orchards were special places in a farming community because they provided food that would last over winter, and picking the apples was a source of employment. Perhaps understandably, our ancestors had all sorts of superstitions about orchards: for example, that spirits dwelled amongst the trees and had to be appeased to ensure a good crop. The habit of wassailing in orchards is one variation on this theme. It seems to have been especially common in the West Country. Groups of local people would enter the orchard at a particular time of the year, often around the date of Twelfth Night, and sing an incantation to exhort the trees to bear good fruit. One example is:
Here's to thee, old apple-tree,
Whence thou may'st bud, and whence thou may'st blow;
And whence thou may'st bear apples enow.
Hats full! Caps full!
Bushel, bushel, sacks full!
And my pockets full, too!
Huzza! Huzza!
This chanting was variously accompanied by blowing horns or shouting to scare bad spirits away, libations of cider on selected trees as an offering, dancing around trees, or hanging tokens from the trees' branches.
To apples were attributed a number of surprising medicinal properties. The well-known seventeenth-century herbalist Nicholas Culpeper notes that 'Roasted apples are good for the asthmatic; either raw, roasted or boiled are good for the consumptive [TB sufferer], in inflammations of the breasts or lungs.' However, the Tudor herbalist John Gerard describes a quite staggering array of uses for the humble apple. He says they are valuable for treating a weak stomach and could be applied to sites of inflammation, but then adds some rather surprising properties:
The juice of apples which be sweet and of a middle taste is mixed in compositions of diverse medicines, and also for the tempering of melancholy humours [i.e. treating depression] ...
There is likewise made an ointment with the pulp of apples and swines' grease [= lard] and rosewater, which is used to beautify the face, and to take away the roughness of the skin, which is called in shops 'Pomatum' ...
The pulp of the roasted apples, in number four or five according to the greatness of the apples ... mixed in a wine quart of fair water, laboured together until it come to be as apples and ale (which we call 'lambs wool') and the whole quart drunk last at night, within the space of an hour doth in one night cure those that piss by drops with great anguish and dolour, the stranguary, and all other diseases proceeding of the difficulty of making water. But in twice taking, it never faileth in any. Oftentimes there happeneth with the aforesaid diseases, the gonorrhoea, or running of the rains, which it likewise healeth in those persons, but not generally in all ... Apples cut in pieces, and distilled with a quantity of camphite and butter-milk, take away the marks and scars gotten by the smallpox, being washed therewith when they grow unto their state and ripeness: provided that you give unto the patient a little milk and saffron, or milk and mithridate [= an antidote to poison], to drink to expel to the extreme parts that venom which may lie hid and as yet not seen.
So there you have it: no wonder that an apple a day keeps the doctor away.
(Continues…)
Excerpted from "A History of Trees"
by .
Copyright © 2018 Simon Wills.
Excerpted by permission of Pen and Sword Books Ltd.
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