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Overview
This practical guide clearly explains the tools and methods necessary to bridge the performance gap between conventionally produced and printed parts. Written by a metals expert and experienced educator, Additive Manufacturing of Metals: Fundamentals and Testing of 3- and 4-D Printing starts by explaining the basics, including components, metals, and production processes before progressing to more advanced topics. You will get complete discussions on issues related to the lack of regulation and standardization, mechanical behavior of printed parts, defects, measurements, and quality control. In addition, the book also discusses predictions for the future of the technology. It presents the potential obstacles that may limit its universal adoption across the manufacturing landscape.
Coverage includes:
- Additive manufacturing fundamentals
- History of additive manufacturing
- Metal properties and data
- Feedstock for metal additive manufacturing processes
- Power considerations in metal additive manufacturing
- Technical gaps
- Powder morphology
- Powder characterization and measurement of properties
- Defects encountered in the build
- Mechanical behavior of printed parts
- Metrology and surface roughness issues in metal printing
- Future trends
Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9781260464344 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | McGraw Hill LLC |
| Publication date: | 11/01/2021 |
| Pages: | 496 |
| Product dimensions: | 7.80(w) x 9.60(h) x 1.40(d) |
About the Author
Table of Contents
Preface xi
1 Additive Manufacturing: An Introductory Perspective 1
Introduction 1
Additive Manufacturing in Perspective 3
Additive versus Subtractive Technologies 4
Printing Techniques for Metals 7
Powder Bed Fusion 7
Direct Energy Deposition 10
Binder Jetting 12
Sheet Lamination 13
Capabilities of the Technology 20
Benefits and Limitations of Applications 20
Real Positioning of the Technology 22
References 24
2 History of Additive Manufacturing 27
Introduction 27
Prelude to the Chronicle of Techniques 29
Fine Arts Roots of Additive Manufacturing 32
Pantograph and Control of Replication 36
Perspective Machines 37
The Physionotrace 40
Origins of Photolithography 42
Evolution of Additive Manufacturing 46
References 48
3 Fundamentals of Metals 53
Elements and Crystals 53
Atomic Structure and the Elements 53
Bonds in Solids 53
Crystalline Structures 56
Physical Properties 59
Mechanical Properties 60
Thermal Properties 64
Essential Thermophysical Data 66
Heat Transfer Properties 66
Mass Transfer Properties 78
References 81
4 Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing Processes 83
Metallurgy: A Brief Reminder 83
Mechanical Behavior and Microstructure 83
Process Metallurgy-Alloying 85
Solidification 88
Phases and Phase Stability 90
Forms of Metals 92
Commercially Available Metallic Shapes 92
Metal Powders 97
Powder Manufacturing Processes 99
Atomization 100
Comparison Between Production Methods 104
Availability of Metal AM Feedstock 106
References 113
5 Power Considerations in Metal Additive Manufacturing 117
AM Power Consumption in Perspective 117
The AM Manufacturing Cycle 118
Specific Energy Consumption of Manufacturing Processes 121
Power Supply in Metal AM 125
Anatomy of an AM Machine 125
Process Steps and Printing Workflow 126
Interaction of Power Source and Feedstock Material 130
Power Source-Induced Temperature Rise 131
Heat Sources for Metal AM 135
Lasers 135
Electron Beams 138
Electric and Plasma Arcs 139
Energy Consumption in Additive Manufacturing 140
References 148
6 Technical Gaps 151
Introduction 151
The Potential Contribution of AM 153
Road Maps and Future Vision 154
Economics of AM 156
Metal Printing and Closing the Cost Gap 159
AM Market and Predictions for Growth 159
Comparative Cost Analysis 161
Cost Comparison at High Production Volumes 165
Cost Prediction for Metal AM Technology 176
Gaps Within Metal AM 179
Classification of Technical Gaps 180
Ranking of Priority of Gaps 184
Status of Gap Resolution 185
References 190
7 Powder Morphology 193
Introduction 193
Sintering Mechanisms 193
Particle Characterization 196
Measures of Particle Shape 199
Approaches to Describe Particle Shapes 201
Determination of Particle Size 213
Sieving Analysis 214
Microscopy 219
Laser Diffraction 220
Dynamic Image Analysis 222
Data Analysis Software 223
Comparison Between Techniques 225
Influence of Particle Size and Size Distribution on Part Properties 231
Effect of Particle Size and Distribution on the Density of the Build 231
Effect of Particle Shape and Size on Surface Quality 236
References 241
8 Powder Characterization and Measurement of Properties 247
Levels of Property Identification 247
Key Powder Properties and Their Characterization 248
Powder Flowability 248
Characterization of Powder for Additive Manufacturing 252
Properties and Their Definitions 255
Porosity of a Packed Bed, Void Ratio 255
The Multiple Facets of Density 256
Angle of Repose 261
Measures of Flowability 265
Flow Function 265
Hausner Ratio 268
Characterization of Powder Properties 269
Principles of Characterization Methods 269
Compressibility 275
FT4: Permeability 277
Testing Flow Characteristics 280
Flow Rate 280
Density 286
Surface Area and Porosity 287
Characterization Challenges 287
References 299
9 Defects Encountered in the Build 303
Introduction 303
Elements of Material Processing 304
Inherent Process Limitations 305
Build Chamber Atmosphere 307
Feedstock Quality 307
Beam-Powder Interactions 311
Classification of Defects 321
Porosity 324
Classification of Pores 324
LOF Porosity 326
Effect of Hardware Configuration on LOF Porosity 334
Gas Pores 335
Classification in Relation to Processing Conditions 339
Non-Dimensional Defect Prediction Indexes 341
References 344
10 Mechanical Behavior of Printed Parts 349
Introduction 349
Metallurgical Mechanisms and Metallurgical Defects 350
Solidification Structures 351
Mechanical Properties 358
Standard Tension Test Samples 359
Tensile Properties 362
Testing for Fatigue 388
References 398
11 Metrology and Surface Roughness Issues in Metal Printing 403
Introduction 403
Generic Classifications of Surfaces 404
Measurement and Characterization of Topography 410
Origins of Texture and Roughness in Metal AM 411
Core Process Resolution and Precision 412
Quality of Material Feedstock 413
Support Interface 414
Power Source-Scanning Effects 414
Metrological Characterization in Metal AM 417
Challenges and Constraints 419
Characterization of Form 422
Characterization of Roughness 431
Measurement Technologies and Characterization Strategies 432
X-Ray Computed Tomography 440
The Principles of XCT 442
Positioning XCT Relative to NDT Technologies 443
XCT in Metal AM Metrology 444
Challenges and Future Outlook 448
References 449
12 Future Trends 457
4D Printing 459
Material Classes in Current 4D Printing 461
Steps of 4D Printing 463
4D Printing in Metals 463
Custom Tailoring of Alloys for Metal AM 470
References 474
Index 479