Table of Contents
Preface xii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Empirical research - data 2
1.2 Quantitative and qualitative data 3
1.3 Relaxing the qualitative-quantitative distinction 4
1.4 Some simplifying devices 5
1.5 Essentials and togic 7
1.6 Science, the social sciences and education research 8
1.7 A model of research 10
1.8 Organization of the book 10
Chapter summary 12
Further reading 12
Exercises and study questions 13
2 Theory and Method in Education Research 14
2.1 Methodological theory 15
2.2 Substantive theory 20
2.3 Description versus explanation 21
2.4 Theory verification-theory generation 23
2.5 Question-method connections 25
2.6 Prespecified versus unfolding: structure in research questions, design and data 28
Chapter summary 33
Further reading 34
Exercises and study questions 34
3 The Context and Ethics of Education Research 36
3.1 The political context 38
3.2 The practitioner researcher 39
3.3 Small-scale empirical studies 42
3.4 Researching your own classroom, school or college 43
3.5 Research with children 46
3.6 Ethical issues 49
Chapter summary 53
Further reading 54
Exercises and study questions 54
4 Research Questions 56
4.1 A hierarchy of concepts 58
4.2 Research areas and topics 59
4.3 General and specific research questions 60
4.4 Data collection questions 62
4.5 Developing research questions 62
4.6 The role of research questions 64
4.7 Hypotheses 65
4.8 A simplified model of research 67
4.9 The role of the literature 69
Chapter summary 70
Further reading 70
Exercises and study questions 71
5 From Research Questions to Data 73
5.1 The empirical criterion 74
5.2 Linking concepts and data75
5.3 Good and bad research questions 76
5.4 Value judgements 77
5.5 Causation 78
5.6 Conceptual frameworks 83
5.7 From research questions to data 85
5.8 Combining quantitative and qualitative data 88
Chapter summary 89
Further reading 90
Exercises and study questions 90
6 Literature Searching and Reviewing 93
6.1 Research literature 95
6.2 Theoretical literature 96
6.3 Purposes of a dissertation literature review 97
6.4 Carrying out a literature review 98
6.5 Being critical 104
6.6 Some common problems 105
6.7 Examples of literature reviews 107
6.8 The research journal literature 108
Chapter summary 109
Further reading 109
Exercises and study questions 110
7 Qualitative Research Design 111
7.1 What is research design? 112
7.2 Diversity in qualitative research 115
7.3 Case studies 118
7.4 Ethnography 124
7.5 Grounded theory 129
7.6 Action research 135
Chapter summary 138
Further reading 139
Exercises and study questions 141
8 Collecting Qualitative Data 143
8.1 The interview 144
8.2 Observation 153
8.3 Participant observation 156
8.4 Documentary data 158
8.5 Data collection procedures 161
8.6 Sampling in qualitative research 162
Chapter summary 165
Further reading 165
Exercises and study questions 167
9 The Analysis of Qualitative Data 169
9.1 Diversity in qualitative analysis 170
9.2 Analytic induction 172
9.3 The Miles and Huberman framework for qualitative data analysis 173
9.4 Abstracting and comparing 180
9.5 Grounded theory analysis 182
9.6 Other approaches in qualitative analysis 190
9.7 Computers in the analysis of qualitative data 202
Chapter summary 204
Further reading 206
Exercises and study questions 208
10 Quantitative Research Design 210
10.1 Research design 211
10.2 Some background 212
10.3 Independent, dependent and control variables 214
10.4 The experiment 215
10.5 Quasi-experimental and non-experimental design 219
10.6 Relationships between variables: the correlational survey 222
10.7 Relationships between variables: causation and accounting for variance 224
10.8 Multiple linear regression (MLR) as a general design strategy 226
10.9 Controlling variables 228
Chapter summary 230
Further reading 230
Exercises and study questions 231
11 Collecting Quantitative Data 233
11.1 Types of variables 234
11.2 The process of measurement 236
11.3 Latent traits 239
11.4 Measuring techniques 240
11.5 Steps in constructing a measuring instrument 241
11.6 To construct an instrument or to use an existing instrument? 242
11.7 Locating existing measuring instruments 243
11.8 Reliability and validity 244
11.9 Developing a survey questionnaire 248
11.10 Collecting the data: administering the measuring instrument 249
11.11 Sampling 250
11.12 Secondary analysis 252
Chapter summary 253
Further reading 254
Exercises and study questions 256
12 The Analysis of Quantitative Data 259
12.1 Summarizing quantitative data 261
12.2 Relationships between variables: cross-tabulations and contingency tables 263
12.3 Comparisons between groups: the analysis of variance 265
12.4 Relationships between variables: correlation and regression 270
12.5 The analysis of survey data 276
12.6 Data reduction: factor analysis 277
12.7 Statistical inference 280
12.8 Computer software for the analysis of quantitative data 282
Chapter summary 282
Further reading 283
Exercises and study questions 284
13 Mixed Methods Research 287
13.1 History of mixed methods 289
13.2 Rationale for mixed methods 290
13.3 Basic characteristics of the two approaches: variables and cases 292
13.4 Mixed methods designs 295
Chapter summary 301
Further reading 301
Exercises and study questions 302
14 Evaluation 304
14.1 General evaluative criteria 305
14.2 Programme evaluation 317
Chapter summary 321
Further reading 322
Exercises and study questions 322
15 Research Writing 324
15.1 Background 325
15.2 Research documents 328
15.3 Writing to report versus writing to learn: writing as analysis 340
15.4 Writing choices 341
Chapter summary 342
Further reading 343
Exercises and study questions 344
Appendix 1 Drawing and Verifying Conclusions in Qualitative Analysis 346
Appendix 2 Computer Software in Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis 349
Glossary 356
References 361
Index 375
