Leviticus: Abingdon Old Testament Commentaries
241
Leviticus: Abingdon Old Testament Commentaries
241Paperback
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Overview
Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9781426700170 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | Abingdon Press |
| Publication date: | 04/01/2009 |
| Series: | Abingdon Old Testament Commentaries Series |
| Pages: | 241 |
| Product dimensions: | 6.00(w) x 8.90(h) x 0.70(d) |
About the Author
Professor of Old Testament, Candler School of Theology, Emory University
William Marcellus McPheeters Professor of Old Testament, Columbia Theological Seminary, Decatur, GA 30030
Carolyn Pressler is Harry C. Piper Professor of Biblical Interpretation at United Theological Seminary of the Twin Cities and an ordained minister in the United Church of Christ.
Princeton Seminary
Read an Excerpt
Leviticus
By Patrick D. Miller
Abingdon Press
Copyright © 2009 The United Methodist Publishing HouseAll right reserved.
ISBN: 978-1-4267-0017-0
Chapter One
Commentary
Leviticus 1–7
The first seven chapters of Leviticus hold together as a unified block, consisting of two sets of instructions. Leviticus 1:1 introduces the block, and 7:37-38 provide a corresponding conclusion. The first set of instructions concerns five primary "offerings" (1:3–6:7 [5:26]), and the second provides corresponding "rituals" (6:8 [6:1]–7:36). These generalizations mask a complicated process lying behind the production of this block.
Scholars generally hold that the first set of instructions is for the general populace, while the second set is for the priests only. This does not precisely reflect the narrative headings present in the text, however, nor the expressed intent of the laws. The narrated passages organize this block as a series of nine messages that "the LORD spoke to Moses":
1:1–3:17— Burnt Offerings, Grain Offerings, and Sacrifices of Well-being
4:1–5:13— Sin Offerings
5:14-19— Guilt Offerings for Unintentional Offenses
6:1-7 [5:20-26]— Guilt Offerings for Offenses against a Neighbor
6:8-18 [6:1-11]— Priestly "Rituals" for Burnt and Grain Offerings
6:19-23 [6:12-16]— The Anointed Priest's Grain Offering
6:24–7:21 [6:17–7:21]— Priestly "Rituals" for Sin Offerings,
7:22-27— Prohibition against Eating Fat and Blood
7:28-36— Priestly Portions of a Sacrifice of Well-being
The first set of instructions consists of four messages that Moses is to communicate "to the people of Israel." These instructions relate the guidelines for presenting the five main types of offerings (1:1–6:7 [5:26]). The second set of instructions consists of five messages dealing with the consumption of the offerings (6:8 [6:1]– 7:36). This set begins with the fifth message in the book. It contains two "rituals" that Moses is to pass on "to Aaron and his sons." The "rituals" concern priestly responsibilities and privileges involved in the burnt offering and the grain offering. There follows a brief message concerning a special grain offering that the high priest brings "when he is anointed." The seventh message returns to "rituals" concerning "Aaron and his sons" in the remaining offerings. Two final messages concern details about consuming the sacrifices of well-being, but Moses is to address these "to the people of Israel," as was the case in the first four messages.
Questions often arise concerning the arrangement within these two sets of instructions. The first set presents the burnt offering, the grain offering, and the sacrifice of well-being first, and then the instructions for two expiatory offerings. The arrangement of the first three offerings (which comprise one message, sharing a common narrative heading) seems to have been altered by a redactor, who apparently inserted the grain offering between the burnt offering and sacrifice of well-being. The instructions follow a slightly different order in the second set. The compiler keeps the burnt offering and grain offering together, adding a special grain offering (for one type of occasion); but then the expiatory offerings come before the sacrifice of well-being.
Complicating the broader picture is the presence of two summaries in 7:35-38. Verses 35-36 serve as a conclusion to 7:22-34 or to all of 6:8 [6:1]–7:34. This conclusion identifies what precedes it as "the portion allotted to Aaron and to his sons." This might imply the "rituals" in chapters 6–7. On the other hand, it refers to them as "offerings made by fire," a designation used primarily in the first set of instructions (chaps. 1–5). Verse 37 refers to the preceding instructions as "ritual," and the text lists them in the same order as the ritual instructions. However, verse 38 refers to what precedes as "offerings," as in the first set of instructions, and there are clear links in 7:38 back to the introduction in 1:1. The most economical explanation is that 7:35-36 originally functioned as the conclusion to 6:8 [6:1]–7:34 (or just 7:22-34), and then verses 37-38 were added to tie the second set of instructions together with the first set. This implies that the present purpose of 7:37-38 is to serve as a conclusion to all of 1:1–7:36. Curiously, this list includes an "offering of ordination" (Exod 29:22-34; Lev 8:22-36). Perhaps the instructions for that offering have been displaced. In any case, a significant consequence of this summary is that both sets of instructions now fall under the purview of the general population.
It would appear that two complementary sets of instructions regarding different aspects of the same sacrifices have been brought together in the first seven chapters. The first set prescribes cooperative acts of non-priests and priests. The second set concerns the rights of priests alone. The contents of the second set are not for the ears of the priests alone, though. The final units are addressed "to the people" and the offerings must come from them, showing that the general population is privy to all these instructions. Everyone knows what everyone else is to do.
This points to a sense of shared responsibility in Israel's cultic worship. Just as religious leaders had an obligation to instruct the nation in God's laws, so the populace had an obligation to see to it that the priests officiated with integrity. The primary responsibility is to honor the Lord in worship. The first three chapters in particular prescribe the animals that worshipers should use in sacrifice, the preparations they should make, and the procedures they should follow. By following these instructions, the people will give the Lord proper honor and respect.
Leviticus 1
The first chapter provides the instructions for the burnt offering. This offering comes first because it is the most common sacrifice and because of the totality of the gift to the Lord. Biblical texts prescribe or report burnt offerings for almost every type of occasion, and burnt offerings often accompany other offerings. They differ from other sacrifices in that the entire animal is destroyed in the fire. The instructions of chapter 1 have in mind voluntary, personal burnt offerings. There are numerous passages that assume the use of burnt offerings at regular, corporate gatherings, at times of repentance for sin, and at times of supplication. It would appear that these instructions (and the others in this block) are intended as examples. The underlying purpose of the burnt offering is to attract the favorable attention of the Lord (Levine 1989, 5-6).
Literary Analysis
The opening verse differs somewhat from the common narrative headings of divine speech in pentateuchal laws. It uses an additional verb ("The LORD summoned Moses and spoke to him," emphasis added) and identifies the tent of meeting as the setting for this communication. The former verb indicates a major break from the preceding block (Exod 35–40); the latter links the messages in this block to the surrounding blocks in a general way (the Lord is giving instructions). The result is an implicit reminder that these instructions constitute the first laws— temporally and in significance— given by the Lord regarding the use of the Tabernacle. The Lord promised to meet with the people at this location to deliver commands to them (Exod 25:22; 40:17-33), and these messages constitute the first of those commands.
The first message includes all of chapters 1–3. The general form of this message matches that used in much of the legislative material of the Pentateuch. A primary law is introduced by "When" (ki) while subsequent subordinate laws begin with "(And) if" (we'im). There is some stylistic unevenness, however, in the overall presentation of the commands in these chapters. The initial primary command refers only to animal sacrifices (1:2b). Chapter 2, dealing with grain offerings, also begins with "When," as if starting a new primary law. On the other hand, chapter 3 begins with the subordinate introduction "(And) if," as if the instructions for sacrifices of well-being are a continuation of those for grain offerings. It would be more logical to have the sacrifices of well-being as a continuation of chapter 1; but because grain offerings most often complement burnt offerings, while sacrifices of well-being stand alone, the grain offering was placed after the whole burnt offering. Other stylistic parallels between chapters 1 and 3 reinforce the impression that the placement of chapter 2 is a secondary development.
Most of chapter 1 speaks of the one bringing the sacrifice in the third-person masculine ("When any of you [pl.] bring," v. 2). However, the final phrase of verse 2 shifts to the second-person plural ("you shall bring your offering"). This might indicate an expansion, but perhaps the multiplicity of types of animals prompts the author to shift to a plurality of actors. The primary command in 1:2 mentions only quadrupeds, yet the third form of the burnt offering involves birds (1:14-17). Many literary critics point to such inconsistencies as evidence of revisions within this block of instructions, but it might be wrong to assume that the primary command intends to be specific and comprehensive.
The formulas for secondary laws divide this chapter into three units, each prescribing one of three possible forms for a burnt offering (vv. 3-9, 10-13, 14-17). The order reflects the relative economic value of these animals in descending order (Levine 1989, 5; Jenson 1992, 176). Each unit follows a common structure. Each begins with "(And) if" and then identifies the type of animal to be sacrificed. The basic acts of the sacrifice are described next, including where the animal is to be slaughtered, how the priests are to dispose of the blood, and what they are to do with the parts that remain. Once the animal is completely prepared, it is "turn[ed] ... into smoke ... an offering by fire of pleasing odor to the LORD" (1:9, 13, 17).
Exegetical Analysis
General Heading (1:1-2)
The identification of "the tent of meeting" as the setting for these commands seems to contradict the concluding note in 7:38. This might indicate distinct literary sources. On the other hand, the reference in 7:38 to commands given "on Mount Sinai" could also be translated "at Mount Sinai," meaning near the mountain but not necessarily on top of it (cf. Num 1:1). The term for "offering" in 1:2 is a generic term (Corban; see Mark 7:11), referring here and elsewhere to all of the sacrifices prescribed over the next seven chapters. Clay vessels from the Second Temple period bear this term, indicating that the contents were offerings (Levine 1989, 5, 201).
Burnt Offerings from the Herd (1:3-9)
The designation of "the entrance of the tent of meeting" as the location for this offering denotes the large courtyard east of the main sanctuary (v. 3). A large basin of water and the altar stood in the courtyard. More than denoting a physical location, this phrase reminds the worshipers that they are at the transition area between the divine realm and the human realm. The directive to slaughter the animal "before the LORD" serves the same function (v. 5). The sanctuary faced toward the east, giving the impression that the Lord was facing east as well. The point is to remind the worshipers that the Lord is watching their acts of worship.
The command that the worshiper place a hand on the head of the animal might serve a different purpose than that prescribed for the Day of Atonement (16:21-22). Some believe this gesture transfers sin from the human to the animal, but others assign it one of four other meanings. (1) It could be an act of "identification," showing that the worshiper is coming close to the Lord through the animal, (2) it could be a nonverbal declaration by the worshiper that he or she in particular is bringing the sacrifice, (3) it could indicate a transfer of ownership from the worshiper to the Lord, or (4) it could designate a particular animal as set aside for sacrifice alone.
There has been considerable discussion of the identification of this sacrifice as a means of atonement (v. 4). This is the only mention of atonement in the first three chapters. In the circumstances assumed here, the worshiper is not seeking forgiveness for some specific wrongdoing. Instead, she or he is motivated by the circumstances of the time to honor the Lord, and the burnt offering is a natural way of doing that. These considerations prompt some to say that atonement is a later understanding of this offering, after atonement was considered inherent to animal sacrifices (Jenson 1992, 155-56). Worshipers often brought burnt offerings in times of purification or repentance (12:6-8; Num 15:24). Perhaps this reference reflects that broader usage of this offering. It might also reflect an implicit understanding that on any occasion when a human being approaches the Lord, there is a need for acknowledging the gap that exists between the two (Levine 1989, 6-7; Knohl 1995, 151-52). The placement of the animal's blood on the altar also suggests an expiatory purpose in the sacrifice. Blood represents life (17:11, 14). The Lord is the source of life, and the sacrifice represents life that is given back to its source.
Interpreters dispute the meaning of the phrase, "an offering by fire" ('iššeh, 1:9). This Hebrew term refers most often to portions of sacrifices given solely to the Lord, but it can also include portions eaten by the priests. The term probably is a feminine noun derived from the word for "fire" ('eš]), but it seems redundant to identify a sacrifice as an offering that is burned. Some associate the term with cognate Semitic terms that mean "gift" or "food offering" (Wenham 1979, 56; Milgrom 1991, 161-62). Either derivation would fit in the present context.
It is the final phrase, however, that warrants the most explanation. The statement that a sacrifice is a "pleasing odor to the LORD" seems to accept the common ancient Near Eastern idea that gods consumed a sacrifice by breathing in its smoke. The notion that the Lord would receive physical nourishment or pleasure seems "primitive" or "pagan" to orthodox believers, and it runs contrary to other Old Testament passages (1 Sam 15:22; Ps 50:8-15; Isa 1:11-13; 40:16; Amos 5:21-24). Traditional theologians typically assume that this is an archaic expression, one that was understood in a nonliteral way for most— if not all— of Israel's religious history. The expression probably intends to communicate the Lord's approval and acceptance of the sacrifice, but nothing more. It is common in reference to the first three offerings but occurs only once in the context of sin and guilt offerings (4:31; Jenson 1992, 156; Knohl 1995, 134-35). This supports the view that a burnt offering is primarily a sacrifice for honoring the Lord as God, rather than an appeal for forgiveness.
Burnt Offerings from the Flock (1:10-13)
The only significant difference with this second type of burnt offering is in the use of a sheep or goat rather than a bull. This difference is warranted by economic necessity. The close similarities in the descriptions of the two sacrifices suggest that the aspects mentioned in one but lacking in the other are understood to apply to both.
Burnt Offerings of Birds (1:14-17)
The ceremony for offering a bird differs in several ways from the two preceding types. The priest, not the lay worshiper, brings the bird to the altar and kills it. Perhaps this indicates not that the worshiper owned the bird, but that the priest provided it. The blood of the bird was drained directly onto the altar, probably because there was not enough to be gathered in bowls and dashed on the altar. There is no explanation for why the priest throws certain internal organs onto the ash heap rather than washing them, as he does with the other animals. Perhaps it was felt that no washing could properly cleanse these parts. In fact, there is no consensus about the identification of the second part of the bird so treated. The term can be associated with the contents of the bird's crop, or with the feathers. Finally, birds were not cut into pieces as the other animals were. The priest would wring off the head and tear the bird open, rather than cut it into pieces. These differences probably derive from the physical differences of the animals, not different literary sources.
(Continues...)
Excerpted from Leviticus by Patrick D. Miller Copyright © 2009 by The United Methodist Publishing House. Excerpted by permission of Abingdon Press. All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.
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