Mechanical Design in Organisms

by Stephen A. Wainwright

Overview

This book deals with an interface between mechanical engineering and biology. Available for the first time in paperback, it reviews biological structural materials and systems and their mechanically important features and demonstrates that function at any particular level of biological integration is permitted and controlled by structure at lower levels of integration.



Five chapters discuss the properties of materials in general and those of biomaterials in particular. The authors examine the design of skeletal elements and discuss animal and plant systems in terms of mechanical design. In a concluding chapter they investigate organisms in their environments and the insights gained from study of the mechanical aspects of their lives.

Product Details

ISBN-13:	9780691083087
Publisher:	Princeton University Press
Publication date:	07/21/1982
Edition description:	New Edition
Pages:	423
Product dimensions:	6.00(w) x 9.00(h) x 1.20(d)

Table of Contents

	Preface	v
	Acknowledgement	vi
	List of symbols	xii
Chapter 1	Introduction	1
Part I	Materials	5
Chapter 2A	Principles of the strength of materials: Phenomenological description	6
2.1	Introduction	6
2.2	Stress and Strain	7
2.3	Linear Elasticity	8
2.4	The Elastic Moduli	9
2.5	Poisson's Ratio	11
2.6	Elastic Resilience--Stored Energy	12
2.7	Elastic Stress Concentrations	15
2.8	Fracture of Linearly Elastic Solids	18
2.9	Summary of Properties of Linearly Elastic Solids	22
2.10	Viscosity and Relaxation	23
2.11	Linear Viscoelasticity	25
2.12	Creep and Stress Relaxation	27
2.13	Effect of Temperature	29
2.14	The Glass Transition	30
2.15	Dynamic Behaviour	31
2.16	Viscoelastic Models	33
2.17	Retardation and Relaxation Spectra	36
2.18	Fracture of Viscoelastic Materials	39
2.19	Generalization of the Griffith Theory of Fracture	41
2.20	Summary of Properties of Viscoelastic Materials	43
Chapter 2B	Principles of the strength of materials: Molecular interpretation	45
2.21	Introduction	45
2.22	Thermodynamics of Mechanical Deformation	45
2.23	Linear Elasticity	47
2.24	The Structure of Polymers	50
2.25	Statistics of a Polymer Chain	51
2.26	Rubber Elasticity	54
2.27	Molecular Interpretations of Rubbery Polymers	57
2.28	Molecular Structure and the Master Curve	60
Chapter 3	Tensile materials	64
3.1	Introduction to Crystalline Polymers	64
3.1.1	Factors Affecting Crystallinity in Polymers	64
3.1.2	The Structure of Polymer Crystals	67
3.1.3	Mechanical Properties of Crystalline Polymers	71
3.2	Silk	73
3.2.1	The Structure of Parallel-[beta] Silks	73
3.2.2	The Mechanical Properties of Silks	77
3.2.3	Other Types of Silk	80
3.3	Collagen	81
3.3.1	The Structure of Collagen	82
3.3.2	Mechanical Properties of Collagen Fibres	88
3.4	Cellulose	94
3.4.1	The Structure of Cellulose	95
3.4.2	Mechanical Properties of Cellulose Fibres	99
3.5	Chitin	104
3.5.1	The Structure of Chitin	105
3.5.2	Mechanical Properties of Chitin Fibres	107
Chapter 4	Pliant materials	110
4.1	Introduction	110
4.2	The Protein Rubbers	110
4.2.1	Resilin	111
4.2.2	Abductin	114
4.2.3	Elastin	116
4.3	The Mucopolysaccharides	119
4.4	Pliant Composites	123
4.4.1	Fibre Patterns in Pliant Composites	124
4.4.2	The Role of the Amorphous Phase	126
4.5	Mesoglea	127
4.6	Uterine Cervix	130
4.7	Skin	132
4.8	Arterial Wall	134
4.9	Cartilage	138
4.10	Mechanical Properties of Cartilage	141
Chapter 5	Rigid materials	144
5.1	Introduction	144
5.2	Limiting Behaviour of Composite Materials	144
5.3	Elastic Fibres in a Matrix	147
5.4	Discontinuous Fibres	149
5.5	Effect of Fibre Orientation	150
5.6	Compression of Composite Materials	153
5.7	Fracture of Composite Materials	154
5.8	Voids	157
5.9	Structure of Arthropod Cuticle	159
5.10	Mechanical Properties of Arthropod Cuticle	164
5.11	Structure of Bone	169
5.12	Mechanical Properties of Bone	174
5.12.1	Main Features of Behaviour in Relation to Structure	175
5.12.2	Anisotropic Behaviour of Bone	180
5.12.3	Stress Concentrations in Bone	181
5.12.4	The Effect of Mineralization on Bone	183
5.12.5	Fatigue in Bone	184
5.12.6	Adaptive Growth and Reconstruction in Bone	185
5.13	Keratin	187
5.14	Gorgonin and Antipathin	191
5.15	Structure of the Plant Cell Wall	194
5.15.1	Cell Wall Structure in Nitella	196
5.15.2	The Tracheid	196
5.16	Mechanical Properties of Cell Walls	198
5.17	Structure of Wood	202
5.18	Mechanical Properties of Wood	203
5.19	Stony Materials	207
5.19.1	Porifera	207
5.19.2	Cnidaria	210
5.19.3	Mollusca	211
5.19.4	Brachiopoda	214
5.19.5	Arthropoda	216
5.19.6	Echinodermata	216
5.19.7	Birds' Eggshells	218
5.19.8	Spicules: Mechanical Considerations	219
5.19.9	Teeth	221
5.20	Mechanical Properties of Stony Materials	224
5.20.1	Grain Size	225
5.20.2	Porosity	227
5.20.3	The Function of the Organic Matrix	229
5.20.4	Stony Skeletons with Many Holes	233
5.21	Rigid Skeletal Materials: some Final Remarks	234
Part II	Structural Elements and Systems	241
Chapter 6	Elements of structural systems	243
6.1	Introduction	243
6.2	Bending	244
6.3	Compression and Buckling	249
6.4	Torsion	253
6.5	Cross-Sectional Shape	254
6.6	Shells	261
6.7	Materials for Minimum Weight	264
6.8	Principles of Structural Optimization	268
6.9	The Failure of Elements (and Shells)	269
6.10	Joints	275
6.10.1	Degrees of Freedom	275
6.10.2	Forces and Directions	277
6.10.3	Flexible Joints	278
6.10.4	Sliding Joints	279
6.11	Adaptation of Shape	280
6.12	Adaptation of Material	283
Chapter 7	Support in organisms	287
7.1	Introduction to Rigid and Flexible Systems	287
7.1.1	The Optimization of Space Frames	289
7.1.2	Fibre-wound Cylinders as Reinforced Membrane Sytems	293
7.2	Design Principles for Biological Structural Systems	297
7.3	Real Organisms: An Overview	299
7.3.1	Symmetry	299
7.3.2	Reaction to Force	299
7.4	Fluid Support Systems in Plants and Animals	302
7.4.1	High-Pressure Worms	302
7.4.2	Low-Pressure Worms	304
7.5	Open, Extensible Cylinders: Sea Anemones	306
7.5.1	Hydra and Other Polyps	308
7.5.2	Medusae	310
7.5.3	Tube Feet	313
7.5.4	Metamerism	316
7.6	On Being Surrounded by Air	318
7.6.1	Wilting Plants	318
7.6.2	Woody Plants	320
7.6.3	Reaction Wood	321
7.6.4	Fibre-reinforced Palm Trees	324
7.7	The Hydrostatic Onychophora	325
7.8	Jointed Frameworks of Solid Materials	327
7.8.1	Running and Burrowing Myriapods	327
7.8.2	Insects	332
7.9	Complex Support Systems: Molluscs and Echinoderms	333
7.10	Squid Locomotion	334
7.11	Backbones	337
7.12	Stressed Tissues	339
7.13	Safety Factors	340
Part III	Ecomechanics	345
Chapter 8	Ecological mechanics	347
8.1	Introduction	347
8.2	The Stressful Environment	348
8.2.1	Adaptations to Gravity (Mass)	348
8.2.2	Adaptations to Velocity of Flow (Strength and Rigidity)	349
8.2.3	Rigid Stony Corals	349
8.2.4	Compliant and Tensile Grasses, Seaweeds and Spider Webs	349
8.2.5	Drag Control in Air: Trees	355
8.2.6	Drag Control in Water: Passive Suspension Feeders	355
8.2.7	Adaptations to Direction of Flow (Anisotropy)	358
8.2.8	Adaptations to Duration and Frequency of Flow (Stress Rate and Fatigue)	364
8.2.9	Meiofauna and the Stormy Interstices	364
8.3	Active Suspension Feeders	365
8.4	The Informative Environment	365
8.4.1	Chemical Information	365
8.4.2	Thermal Information	365
8.4.3	Rheological Information	367
8.5	The Next Few Years	367
	References--Author Index	369
	Subject Index	395

Editorial Reviews

"One of the most useful and important books I have reviewed. The designer of a bridge needs to know the strength of his steel or concrete and he needs to know how forces are transmitted through structures. . . . A biologist studying an animal or plant structure cannot understand it fully without the same sort of knowledge."—Quarterly Review of Biology

From the Publisher

One of the most useful and important books I have reviewed. The designer of a bridge needs to know the strength of his steel or concrete and he needs to know how forces are transmitted through structures.... A biologist studying an animal or plant structure cannot understand it fully without the same sort of knowledge.

The Quarterly Review of Biology

"One of the most useful and important books I have reviewed. The designer of a bridge needs to know the strength of his steel or concrete and he needs to know how forces are transmitted through structures. . . . A biologist studying an animal or plant structure cannot understand it fully without the same sort of knowledge."

Quarterly Review of Biology