Table of Contents
About the Author vii
Introduction 1
An Enduring Problem 3
Essential Beginning Steps 4
The Importance of Being Bold 7
Chapter 1 Define the Purpose of Grades 9
Shared Naiveté 10
The Purpose of Grading and Reporting 13
The Importance of a Purpose Statement 15
Key Questions in Defining the Purpose 16
The Report Card's Purpose Statement 20
Summary 21
Chapter 2 Challenge the Use of Percentage Grades 23
A Brief History 24
Modern Resurgence 25
Logistic Challenges 27
Accuracy Challenges 28
Percentage Grades Versus Percent Correct 29
The Zero and Minimum-Grade Challenge 31
Solution 32
Summary 33
Chapter 3 Challenge Plus and Minus and Half-Grade Increments 35
The Illusion of Precision 37
Research on Implementation 43
Summary 45
Chapter 4 Challenge Beil-Shaped Grade Distributions 47
Curving Grades 47
Prescribing Grade Distributions 48
Assumptions 49
Negative Consequences 51
Grade Inflation 52
Perspectives on Purpose 54
Summary 58
Chapter 5 Challenge the Computation of Class Rank 59
Why Do We Compute Class Rank? 61
Class Rank for College Admissions 62
The Selection of Class Valedictorian 64
What Becomes of High School Valedictorians? 66
Alternative Methods of Selecting the Class Valedictorian 67
Summary 69
Chapter 6 Challenge the Use of a Single Grade 71
Sources of the Problem 72
Hodgepodge Grading 73
Purposes and Criteria 74
Conflicting Solutions 76
Multiple Grades 77
Summary 80
Chapter 7 Challenge the Use of Mathematical Algorithms 83
Electronic Gradebooks 84
Mathematical Precision Versus Valid Grades 85
Questionable Grading Practices 88
Summary 95
Chapter 8 Challenge Practices That Confound the Meaning of Grades 97
Grades as Rewards and Punishments 98
Grades to Ensure Compliance 99
Summary 107
Final Thoughts 109
References 115
Index 129