Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom / Edition 1

by Tricia Hedge

Overview

This comprehensive handbook helps teachers develop insights into issues, problems, and possibilities in English teaching methodology.

Product Details

ISBN-13:	9780194421720
Publisher:	Oxford University Press
Publication date:	03/02/2000
Series:	Oxford Handbooks for Language Teachers Series
Edition description:	New Edition
Pages:	464
Product dimensions:	9.66(w) x 6.54(h) x 0.98(d)

Table of Contents

AcknowledgementsIntroductionPART ONE: A framework for teaching and learning1. Learners and learning, classrooms and contexts1.1 Introduction: issues for the language teacher1.2 What do we know about how languages are learned? 1.2.1 The nature of input1.2.2 The process of intake1.2.3 The role of interaction in the classroom1.2.4 The role of error1.3 How do differences among learners affect learning processes and teaching procedures? 1.3.1 Aptitude1.3.2 Learning style and learning strategies1.3.3 Affective factors1.3.4 Motivation for learning English1.4 What factors of context should teachers take into account? 1.5 What roles can teachers and learners play in the learning process? 1.5.1 The teacher's roles and responsibilities1.5.2 The learner's roles and responsibilities1.6 What roles can learning materials play? 1.7 ConclusionDiscussion topics and projectsFurther reading2. The communicative classroom2.1 Introduction: the concept of communicative language ability2.2 What are the components of communicative language ability? 2.2.1 Linguistic competence2.2.2 Pragmatic competence2.2.3 Discourse competence2.2.4 Strategic competence2.2.5 Fluency2.3 What are the issues for the communicative curriculum? 2.4 What are the implications for the communicative classroom? 2.4.1 What are communicative tasks and what are their roles in teaching and learning? 2.4.2 How can we manage a communicative classroom? 2.4.3 What does communicative language teaching imply for authenticity in the classroom? 2.5 What are the issues in applying a communicative approach in context? 2.6 ConclusionDiscussion topics and projectsFurther reading3. Learner autonomy and learner training3.1 Introduction: the self-directed learner3.2 What do we know about the strategies of the 'good language learner'? 3.2.1 Types of learner strategy3.2.2 Research into learner strategies3.3 What insights can we gain from educational thinking on autonomous learning? 3.4 What are the implications for learner training in the classroom? 3.4.1 Activities which help learners to reflect on learning3.4.2 Activities which train strategies and equip learners to be active3.4.3 Activities which encourage learners to monitor and check their own progress3.5 What role can self-access facilities play in language learning? 3.6 Are learner autonomy and learner training universally appropriate concepts? 3.7 ConclusionDiscussion topics and projectsFurther readingPART TWO: Teaching the language system4. Vocabulary4.1 Introduction: the task of learning vocabulary4.2 What do we know about the lexical system of English? 4.2.1 Denotative and connotative meaning4.2.2 Meaning relations among words4.3 How do second language learners acquire vocabulary? 4.3.1 Strategies for vocabulary learning4.3.2 Factors affecting vocabulary acquisition4.4 What are the implications for the teaching of vocabulary? 4.4.1 Developing a variety of techniques for the teaching of meaning4.4.2 Encouraging the development of effective strategies4.4.3 Exposing learners to vocabulary through reading and training lexical inferencing4.4.4 Teaching the effective use of dictionaries4.4.5 Evaluating the vocabulary component of coursebooks4.4.6 Teaching vocabulary explicitly through a range of activity types4.4.7 Developing resources for vocabulary teaching4.5 ConclusionDiscussion topics and projectsFurther reading5. Grammar5.1 Introduction: the role of grammar in English language teaching5.2 What do we know about the learning of grammar? 5.2.1 Noticing5.2.2 Reasoning and hypothesizing5.2.3 Structuring and restructuring5.2.4 Automatizing5.3 What information can help us in the selection and presentation of grammar? 5.3.1 Grammar as meaning5.3.2 Grammar in discourse5.3.3 Grammar and style5.4 What principles can guide us in the teaching of grammar? 5.4.1 Presenting grammar5.4.2 Practising grammar5.4.3 How can we design the grammar component of a course? 5.4.4 How can we suit approach to learner needs? 5.5 ConclusionDiscussion topics and projectsFurther readingPART THREE: Developing the language skills6. Reading6.1 Introduction: making sense of a text6.2 What do we know about the process of second language reading? 6.2.1 In what ways is reading an interactive process? 6.2.2 In what ways is reading a purposeful process? 6.2.3 In what ways is reading a critical process? 6.2.4 What is the role of extensive reading? 6.3 What are the implications for the teaching of reading? 6.3.1 How do we establish goals for the reading classroom? 6.3.2 What criteria do we use to select reading texts? 6.3.3 What kinds of tasks help to develop reading ability? 6.3.4 Can we help students to read critically? 6.3.5 How can we encourage extensive reading? 6.4 ConclusionDiscussion topics and projectsFurther reading7. Listening7.1 Introduction: the role of listening in the ELT curriculum7.2 What do we know about the listening process? 7.2.1 Bottom-up processes in listening7.2.2 Top-down processes in listening7.2.3 Purposes for listening7.3 What 'uncertainties' exist for foreign language listeners? 7.3.1 Uncertainties of condence7.3.2 Uncertainties deriving from the presentation of speech7.3.3 Uncertainties because of gaps in the message7.3.4 Uncertain strategies7.3.5 Uncertainties of language7.3.6 Uncertainties of content7.3.7 Visual uncertainties7.4 What are the implications for the English language classroom? 7.4.1 Creating reasons for listening7.4.2 Selecting texts for listening7.4.3 Designing listening activities for the classroom7.4.4 Building condence in listening to English7.5 ConclusionDiscussion topics and projectsFurther reading8. Speaking8.1 Introduction: skills and strategies in speaking English8.2 What is involved in speaking English competently? 8.2.1 Distinguishing types of speaking situation8.2.2 Making oneself understood8.2.3 Managing interaction8.3 What are the issues in teaching the phonological aspects of English? 8.3.1 Choosing a model for pronunciation teaching8.3.2 Taking a holistic or atomistic approach8.3.3 Selecting practice according to student need8.4 What are the implications for classroom practice in the teaching of spoken English? 8.4.1 Talking with students about spoken English8.4.2 Making accuracy-based practice meaningful8.4.3 Designing and evaluating fluency-based activities8.4.4 Providing a range and balance of activities in a course8.4.5 Teaching the pronunciation component of a course8.4.6 Treating error in the classroom8.4.7 Managing classroom interaction8.5 ConclusionDiscussion topics and projectsFurther reading9. Writing9.1 Introduction: a contemporary writing classroom9.2 What do we know about the process of writing? 9.2.1 What strategies do skilled writers use as they compose? 9.2.2 What activities characterize the writing process? 9.3 What are the implications of a process approach? 9.3.1 Helping students to generate ideas9.3.2 Providing practice in planning9.3.3 Contextualizing tasks to develop a sense of audience9.3.4 Encouraging students in revision strategies9.3.5 Supporting students with technology9.3.6 Issues in introducing a process approach9.4 How can we analyse and describe the structure of written texts? 9.5 What are the implications of a text-based approach to writing? 9.5.1 Helping students to identify their writing needs9.5.2 Building awareness of discourse organization9.5.3 Helping students to develop crafting skills9.5.4 Enabling students to appreciate the criteria for an effective text9.6 ConclusionDiscussion topics and projectsFurther readingPART FOUR: Planning and assessing learning10. Course design10.1 Introduction: roles for the teacher in course design10.2 What are the steps in course design? 10.2.1 Considering the students in their context of learning10.2.2 Establishing goals and objectives10.2.3 Planning the syllabus10.2.4 Designing a course unit10.2.5 What procedures can be helpful in evaluating courses? 10.3 What choices do teachers need to make in course design? 10.3.1 Choosing a textbook10.3.2 Taking a process approach10.3.3 Using projects in ELT10.3.4 Negotiating with learners10.4 ConclusionDiscussion topics and projectsFurther reading11. Classroom assessment by Pauline Rea-Dickins11.1 Introduction: assessment and testing11.2 What is testing? 11.2.1 The structuralist influence11.2.2 The communicative influence11.3 What is the role of classroom assessment? 11.3.1 What purposes should classroom assessment have? 11.3.2 What kind of feedback is useful? 11.3.3 What assessment procedures are available? 11.4 What characterizes good assessment practice? 11.4.1 Are affective considerations relevant to assessment? 11.4.2 How can good assessment practice be framed? 11.5 ConclusionDiscussion topics and projectsFurther readingbr /Appendix: Notes on Introductory tasksGlossaryBibliographyIndexAcknowledgementsIntroductionPART ONE: A framework for teaching and learning1. Learners and learning, classrooms and contexts1.1 Introduction: issues for the language teacher1.2 What do we know about how languages are learned? 1.2.1 The nature of input1.2.2 The process of intake1.2.3 The role of interaction in the classroom1.2.4 The role of error1.3 How do differences among learners affect learning processes and teaching procedures? 1.3.1 Aptitude1.3.2 Learning style and learning strategies1.3.3 Affective factors1.3.4 Motivation for learning English1.4 What factors of context should teachers take into account? 1.5 What roles can teachers and learners play in the learning process? 1.5.1 The teacher's roles and responsibilities1.5.2 The learner's roles and responsibilities1.6 What roles can learning materials play? 1.7 ConclusionDiscussion topics and projectsFurther reading2. The communicative classroom2.1 Introduction: the concept of communicative language ability2.2 What are the components of communicative language ability? 2.2.1 Linguistic competence2.2.2 Pragmatic competence2.2.3 Discourse competence2.2.4 Strategic competence2.2.5 Fluency2.3 What are the issues for the communicative curriculum? 2.4 What are the implications for the communicative classroom? 2.4.1 What are communicative tasks and what are their roles in teaching and learning? 2.4.2 How can we manage a communicative classroom? 2.4.3 What does communicative language teaching imply for authenticity in the classroom? 2.5 What are the issues in applying a communicative approach in context? 2.6 ConclusionDiscussion topics and projectsFurther reading3. Learner autonomy and learner training3.1 Introduction: the self-directed learner3.2 What do we know about the strategies of the 'good language learner'? 3.2.1 Types of learner strategy3.2.2 Research into learner strategies3.3 What insights can we gain from educational thinking on autonomous learning? 3.4 What are the implications for learner training in the classroom? 3.4.1 Activities which help learners to reflect on learning3.4.2 Activities which train strategies and equip learners to be active3.4.3 Activities which encourage learners to monitor and check their own progress3.5 What role can self-access facilities play in language learning? 3.6 Are learner autonomy and learner training universally appropriate concepts? 3.7 ConclusionDiscussion topics and projectsFurther readingPART TWO: Teaching the language system4. Vocabulary4.1 Introduction: the task of learning vocabulary4.2 What do we know about the lexical system of English? 4.2.1 Denotative and connotative meaning4.2.2 Meaning relations among words4.3 How do second language learners acquire vocabulary? 4.3.1 Strategies for vocabulary learning4.3.2 Factors affecting vocabulary acquisition4.4 What are the implications for the teaching of vocabulary? 4.4.1 Developing a variety of techniques for the teaching of meaning4.4.2 Encouraging the development of effective strategies4.4.3 Exposing learners to vocabulary through reading and training lexical inferencing4.4.4 Teaching the effective use of dictionaries4.4.5 Evaluating the vocabulary component of coursebooks4.4.6 Teaching vocabulary explicitly through a range of activity types4.4.7 Developing resources for vocabulary teaching4.5 ConclusionDiscussion topics and projectsFurther reading5. Grammar5.1 Introduction: the role of grammar in English language teaching5.2 What do we know about the learning of grammar? 5.2.1 Noticing5.2.2 Reasoning and hypothesizing5.2.3 Structuring and restructuring5.2.4 Automatizing5.3 What information can help us in the selection and presentation of grammar? 5.3.1 Grammar as meaning5.3.2 Grammar in discourse5.3.3 Grammar and style5.4 What principles can guide us in the teaching of grammar? 5.4.1 Presenting grammar5.4.2 Practising grammar5.4.3 How can we design the grammar component of a course? 5.4.4 How can we suit approach to learner needs? 5.5 ConclusionDiscussion topics and projectsFurther readingPART THREE: Developing the language skills6. Reading6.1 Introduction: making sense of a text6.2 What do we know about the process of second language reading? 6.2.1 In what ways is reading an interactive process? 6.2.2 In what ways is reading a purposeful process? 6.2.3 In what ways is reading a critical process? 6.2.4 What is the role of extensive reading? 6.3 What are the implications for the teaching of reading? 6.3.1 How do we establish goals for the reading classroom? 6.3.2 What criteria do we use to select reading texts? 6.3.3 What kinds of tasks help to develop reading ability? 6.3.4 Can we help students to read critically? 6.3.5 How can we encourage extensive reading? 6.4 ConclusionDiscussion topics and projectsFurther reading7. Listening7.1 Introduction: the role of listening in the ELT curriculum7.2 What do we know about the listening process? 7.2.1 Bottom-up processes in listening7.2.2 Top-down processes in listening7.2.3 Purposes for listening7.3 What 'uncertainties' exist for foreign language listeners? 7.3.1 Uncertainties of condence7.3.2 Uncertainties deriving from the presentation of speech7.3.3 Uncertainties because of gaps in the message7.3.4 Uncertain strategies7.3.5 Uncertainties of language7.3.6 Uncertainties of content7.3.7 Visual uncertainties7.4 What are the implications for the English language classroom? 7.4.1 Creating reasons for listening7.4.2 Selecting texts for listening7.4.3 Designing listening activities for the classroom7.4.4 Building condence in listening to English7.5 ConclusionDiscussion topics and projectsFurther reading8. Speaking8.1 Introduction: skills and strategies in speaking English8.2 What is involved in speaking English competently? 8.2.1 Distinguishing types of speaking situation8.2.2 Making oneself understood8.2.3 Managing interaction8.3 What are the issues in teaching the phonological aspects of English? 8.3.1 Choosing a model for pronunciation teaching8.3.2 Taking a holistic or atomistic approach8.3.3 Selecting practice according to student need8.4 What are the implications for classroom practice in the teaching of spoken English? 8.4.1 Talking with students about spoken English8.4.2 Making accuracy-based practice meaningful8.4.3 Designing and evaluating fluency-based activities8.4.4 Providing a range and balance of activities in a course8.4.5 Teaching the pronunciation component of a course8.4.6 Treating error in the classroom8.4.7 Managing classroom interaction8.5 ConclusionDiscussion topics and projectsFurther reading9. Writing9.1 Introduction: a contemporary writing classroom9.2 What do we know about the process of writing? 9.2.1 What strategies do skilled writers use as they compose? 9.2.2 What activities characterize the writing process? 9.3 What are the implications of a process approach? 9.3.1 Helping students to generate ideas9.3.2 Providing practice in planning9.3.3 Contextualizing tasks to develop a sense of audience9.3.4 Encouraging students in revision strategies9.3.5 Supporting students with technology9.3.6 Issues in introducing a process approach9.4 How can we analyse and describe the structure of written texts? 9.5 What are the implications of a text-based approach to writing? 9.5.1 Helping students to identify their writing needs9.5.2 Building awareness of discourse organization9.5.3 Helping students to develop crafting skills9.5.4 Enabling students to appreciate the criteria for an effective text9.6 ConclusionDiscussion topics and projectsFurther readingPART FOUR: Planning and assessing learning10. Course design10.1 Introduction: roles for the teacher in course design10.2 What are the steps in course design? 10.2.1 Considering the students in their context of learning10.2.2 Establishing goals and objectives10.2.3 Planning the syllabus10.2.4 Designing a course unit10.2.5 What procedures can be helpful in evaluating courses? 10.3 What choices do teachers need to make in course design? 10.3.1 Choosing a textbook10.3.2 Taking a process approach10.3.3 Using projects in ELT10.3.4 Negotiating with learners10.4 ConclusionDiscussion topics and projectsFurther reading11. Classroom assessment by Pauline Rea-Dickins11.1 Introduction: assessment and testing11.2 What is testing? 11.2.1 The structuralist influence11.2.2 The communicative influence11.3 What is the role of classroom assessment? 11.3.1 What purposes should classroom assessment have? 11.3.2 What kind of feedback is useful? 11.3.3 What assessment procedures are available? 11.4 What characterizes good assessment practice? 11.4.1 Are affective considerations relevant to assessment? 11.4.2 How can good assessment practice be framed? 11.5 ConclusionDiscussion topics and projectsFurther readingbr /Appendix: Notes on Introductory tasksGlossaryBibliographyIndex