The River Was Dyed with Blood: Nathan Bedford Forrest and Fort Pillow
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The River Was Dyed with Blood: Nathan Bedford Forrest and Fort Pillow
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Overview
A prewar slave trader and owner, Forrest was a controversial figure throughout his lifetime. Because the attack on Fort Pillow—which, as Forrest wrote, left the nearby waters “dyed with blood”—occurred in an election year, Republicans used him as a convenient Confederate scapegoat to marshal support for the war. After the war he also became closely associated with the spread of the Ku Klux Klan. Consequently, the man himself, and the truth about Fort Pillow, has remained buried beneath myths, legends, popular depictions, and disputes about the events themselves.
Wills sets what took place at Fort Pillow in the context of other wartime excesses from the American Revolution to World War II and Vietnam, as well as the cultural transformations brought on by the Civil War. Confederates viewed black Union soldiers as the embodiment of slave rebellion and reacted accordingly. Nevertheless, Wills concludes that the engagement was neither a massacre carried out deliberately by Forrest, as charged by a congressional committee, nor solely a northern fabrication meant to discredit him and the Confederate States of America, as pro-Southern apologists have suggested. The battle-scarred fighter with his homespun aphorisms was neither an infallible warrior nor a heartless butcher, but a product of his time and his heritage.
Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9780806168784 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | University of Oklahoma Press |
| Publication date: | 01/12/2021 |
| Edition description: | First Edition |
| Pages: | 292 |
| Product dimensions: | 6.00(w) x 9.00(h) x 0.66(d) |
About the Author
Read an Excerpt
The River Was Dyed With Blood
Nathan Bedford Forrest and Fort Pillow
By Brian Steel Wills
UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA PRESS
Copyright © 2014 University of Oklahoma PressAll rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-0-8061-4604-1
CHAPTER 1
WARRIOR IN AN UNCIVIL WAR
1821–1864
I did not come here to make half a job of it. I mean to have them all.
Nathan Bedford Forrest at Murfreesboro, Tennessee, July 13, 1862
Whenever you see anything blue, shoot at it, and do all you can to keep up the scare.
Forrest in pursuit of Abel Streight, May 1863
I'm tired of sacrificing lives, and I offer you a chance to stop it. If you don't, I won't be answerable for the consequences.
Forrest to Streight, May 1863
[M]y idée is, to always git the most men thar fust, and then, ef you can't whup 'em, outrun 'em.
Forrest to fellow generals, September 1863
The man who led his men in the action at Fort Pillow, Tennessee, on April 12, 1864, was a product of the Tennessee backcountry. Nathan Bedford Forrest began his life on July 13, 1821, near the small hamlet of Chapel Hill. He grew up in an isolated environment that required self-reliance at an early age. Forrest quickly learned the harsh lessons of life in the hinterlands from the dangers that required prompt action to overcome. For a youth with only six months of formal education, these lessons came largely from his life experiences rather than through the classroom, although Bedford Forrest demonstrated himself to be a quick and able learner as he matured.
Forrest's world inured him to hardship and danger. He responded to these elements by attacking them head on, his compensation no doubt for the fear that lay deep inside. He illustrated this himself with the story of a routine event that nearly led to disaster. Apparently, one of young Forrest's chores included watering the family's animals. In the process he passed a cabin whose occupants owned dogs that enjoyed the diversion of chasing after the horses. The boy thrilled in the game as well, tossing sticks and rocks at the pursuers from the supposed security of the saddle until he was out of their range. Unfortunately, on one occasion the horse on which he rode did not properly appreciate the arrangement, and when the dogs came roaring after them, the frightened animal bolted and bucked his rider from his perch. Forrest recalled that as he hurled through the air and then plummeted toward ground, he expected to be torn to shreds but was determined to sell his life as dearly as possible. Yet instead of perishing at the fangs of vicious canines, he noticed that the dogs were racing in the opposite direction. In the common practice of the chase, they had never experienced a rock as big as a boy.
On that day Bedford Forrest learned that his opponents in any clash were as afraid of him as he was of them. He came to understand how to turn their fear to his advantage while simultaneously harnessing his own. By mastering himself, he hoped to control a situation and defeat any foe that might rise to challenge him. "Get 'em skeered and then keep the skeer on 'em," he observed as his unique articulation of that principle. Consequently, in scrapes throughout his life and in virtually every circumstance he faced on the battlefield, Forrest emerged successful more often than not through sheer grit and determination.
Forrest's penchant for pursuing a defeated foe remained a hallmark of his Civil War experience. He understood that broken units might rally and prove formidable on different ground. In this sense Bedford Forrest shared the outlook of his celebrated comrade from Virginia, Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson. "Always mystify, mislead, and surprise the enemy if possible;" Jackson once observed, "and when you strike and overcome him, never let up in the pursuit as long as your men have strength to follow; for an army routed, if hotly pursued, becomes panic-stricken, and can then be destroyed by half their number."
As a soldier, Forrest adapted this aggressiveness to the battlefield with ease. "Whenever you meet the enemy," he liked to say, "no matter how few there are of you or how many of them, show fight." Forrest knew that to exhibit weakness or indecision was tantamount to inviting attack. "If you show fight," he explained, "they will think there are more of you, and will not push you half so hard." In his pursuit of Union raiders across northern Alabama, the Confederate admonished his men, "Whenever you see anything blue, shoot at it, and do all you can to keep up the scare." At Brice's Cross Roads, Forrest's greatest victory, he described the advantages of a man "in motion" as being "worth two standing." The benefit to be derived from such displays would be twofold: aggressive action would mask one's own vulnerabilities at the same time it kept an adversary off balance and tentative. The result would be to obtain, or retain, the initiative in any confrontation. Again, in his own words, he would often say that his object was to get "the bulge" on his opponent.
In addition to a confidence that came from self-reliance and a tendency toward action rather than passive contemplation, Forrest learned and utilized other skills that served him well. It is difficult to say with any exactitude at what point he took up what became a lifelong interest in gambling. Forrest was proficient at riding and liked to race horses. It was a logical progression for him that wagers entered into the process, and as he began to play cards for money, that aspect of competitive engagement occupied a larger place in his life and thoughts. A contemporary account asserts the extraordinary claim that "although he seldom gambled, he never left a race-course or a card table a loser."
As a soldier, Bedford Forrest was able to apply the skills these games of chance perfected in him to situations in combat with consistent success. It is clear that his opponents in battle, as well as those who competed against him over the poker table, faced a formidable foe. Indeed, as one of Forrest's commanding officers assessed after the war, "He was a great poker player and illustrated some of its principles and technicalities on the battle-field." Another source from the period notes simply, "He seldom gambled with [the lives of] his men, if I may appropriate the term, unless, as he expressed it, he thought he 'had a dead thing.'"
To these characteristics Forrest added an almost innate understanding of human nature. He knew how to motivate people when he wanted them to follow a particular path. He knew just as well how to intimidate them when they interfered with a course he had set for himself. Bedford Forrest honed the personal tools that rested on these instincts through his practical experiences in the backcountry and his earliest interactions with other human beings. He recognized the basic truth that when an individual or individuals have entered into a combat situation, or other life-threatening circumstance, the prime motivation would be survival.
Throughout his life, Forrest also exhibited a temper that was legendary in its proportions and its effect on those around him. One devoted staff officer, D. C. Kelley, noted that circumstances could easily determine his chief's state of mind. "When the Battle was over," he explained of Forrest, "he was like a tiger at bay untill he got a good sleep and during that time we always kept out of his way." At Brice's Cross Roads Forrest's trusted artillery chief, John Morton, issued the cavalry commander orders without initially realizing the implications of his actions. As a searing sweep of recognition overcame him, the cannoneer recalled that he "apologized, but expected, nevertheless, to be invited to attend to his own 'd—d business.'" There was no such response from his volatile chief on that occasion, but Morton knew he was fortunate to have avoided one.
At other times Forrest was less muted in his reactions. At various points in the war, he clashed with superiors and subordinates, sometimes reaching the point of exchanging blows, before calming down and surveying the differences between them. Unfortunately in the case of Andrew Wills Gould, a violent interaction took place at Columbia, Tennessee, regarding artillery lost during the pursuit of Streight's raiders in April–May 1863 that ultimately cost the young lieutenant his life and nearly ended Forrest's as well. In another instance, only a staffer's timely intercession prevented the general from shooting a private who ran by them toward the rear. "Oh, general, think," the aide called out as Forrest drew his weapon and prepared to fire, causing him to let the fellow go on his way unharmed.
In his early adult years, Forrest went to live and work with a relative in Hernando, Mississippi. He soon found himself embroiled in an argument that resulted in the death of his uncle, Jonathan. But Bedford held his ground and turned back the four attackers, winning the approval of the community. In their appreciation of his courage in the face of long odds, Hernando citizens made young Forrest their coroner, the man who bore the responsibility for collecting local fees.
One individual who had a tremendous calming influence on Forrest was his wife, Mary Ann Montgomery. When they had first met, he knew immediately that she should become his bride and pursued that result with the single-minded determination that he brought to all his serious endeavors. He recognized that her temperament and upbringing differed from his in significant ways. Her guardian balked at Forrest's request for her hand. "You cuss and gamble, and Mary Ann is a Christian girl," the Reverend Samuel Cowan explained. Straightforward in his logic as well as his approach, even with regard to affairs of the heart, Forrest responded: "I know. That's why I want her." An aide later noted simply, "When out of temper he would say 'send for "Old Miss,"'" and Mary's presence would have the desired effect. Mary Ann Forrest's example was so powerful a force in her husband's life that near the end of the war, when he could not be certain about his fate, Forrest sent instructions to his son in which he admonished the young man to "[t]ry to emulate her noble virtues." Candidly, he observed, "If I have been wicked and sinful myself, it would rejoice my heart to see you leading the Christian life which has adorned your mother."
Having married despite the difficulties that faced them, the couple settled down to raise a family in the bustling river town of Memphis. It was here that Bedford Forrest embarked in a serious way on the line of employment that offered him and his family a sense of financial security—the slave trade. Of these activities, Thomas Jordan and J. P. Pryor explain, in a volume that the general critiqued and revised personally, that Forrest was one of "many dealers who overcame the prejudice [against slave traders] by their individual worth and standing." A contemporary summarized Forrest's commercial philosophy succinctly: "His business had been that of a speculator in lands, in negroes, in horses, in cotton, and in fact every thing which was likely to prove lucrative."
Always a man of contradictions, Forrest accepted the practices of others without necessarily indulging in them himself. "My staff does my drinking for me," he once explained when declining the offer of alcohol. In his youth Forrest had survived an encounter with a demijohn that had left him dangerously ill for a time and afterward diminished the desire to repeat the experience. Consequently, he never developed sophistication in his tastes, a comrade noting that the general "did not know whiskey from brandy, but called everything liquor." The same individual remarked that while Forrest "would occasionally swear at my pipe, he never failed to get me a good pouch of tobacco if it came his way."
When it came to his involvement in the slave trade, much would be made by apologists to note the relatively humane way Forrest was supposed to have treated slaves who passed through his mart. As a businessman it was certainly in his best interest to maintain such a reputation, for to have done otherwise would have adversely affected his ability to consummate sales. As an entrepreneur he had known both success and failure, and his hardscrabble background reminded him constantly of the struggles that awaited if his capitalistic ventures proved unsuccessful. "General Forrest is a hard worker," a wartime associate observed. "Everybody about him must be busy." But this driving force existed long before the war and must account in large measure for the dedication with which he approached every task.
As a young man, Forrest usually remained aware of how he presented himself to others. He took care with his appearance and worked diligently to project himself favorably to those he wanted to impress. These early habits persisted through his life and reflected his desire not only for order and control but also for acceptance among his peers. "Few men were neater in personal appearance or his surroundings than General Forrest," one colleague recalled. "He abhorred dirt and disorder," preferring when necessary to "take the broom himself and never stop until things were neat and clean."
Zeal and determination helped make him successful in most of his endeavors, but underlying these traits was more than a hint of intimidation. An assessment at the time of his death reveals insight into his character offered by neighbors in Memphis. "There is no instance of any slave taking advantage of the permission [to go freely into the city] to run away," writer Lafcadio Hearn notes. "Forrest taught them it was in their interest not to abuse the privilege; and as he also taught them to fear him exceedingly, I can believe the story." Despite the implications of physical force suggested in the usual application of such lessons, Forrest seemed to combine an understanding of human nature and the use of reward to achieve his goals rather than rely solely on abject brutality. Fear of his mighty wrath had a controlling effect on more than a few persons, black or white, throughout Forrest's life and could not be discounted.
In any case, when it came to his civilian pursuits, Bedford Forrest continued to make his mark wherever he could. He developed his plantation property in northern Mississippi and plied his trade, becoming the largest slave dealer in Memphis, with a trading network that extended across substantial portions of the South. An individual who knew him during this period observed that Forrest established a business reputation that enabled him to become successful. "He grew rich apace," he recalled in an 1864 sketch of the general, and by the start of the war, Forrest "was one of the wealthiest planters whose home was in Memphis." Most importantly, from a capitalistic or entrepreneurial perspective, "His credit with merchants and bankers was limitless." Forrest also obtained a level of legitimacy in Memphis, where he served as an alderman for two consecutive terms from 1858 to 1860.
Forrest was not averse to exhibiting an image of determination when he felt that circumstances warranted. Just prior to becoming an alderman, he became involved in an incident that revealed a great deal about his character, especially with regard to his public persona. The story involved the "rescue" of a young man named John Able who was about to be lynched by an enraged mob of Memphians in 1857. The situation developed after Able had killed a fellow gambler who was trying to collect a debt.
According to the version presented by the general's earliest postwar biographers, only Forrest's vaunted courage stood between the alleged murderer and eternity for the young man at the hands of a lynch mob. "Pressing through the turbulent masses with much difficulty up to where Able was standing with the rope around his neck, his mother and sister by his side making piteous, tearful appeals to the implacable throng around for the life of their kinsman," the stalwart backwoodsman girded himself to save the fellow. "But Forrest, drawing his knife, with a swift sweep severed the rope, and, taking Able by the arm, announced aloud his intention to remand him to the custody of the rightful authorities."
Once more at the jailhouse to which he had managed to bring Able safely, Forrest had to confront the angry mob. The soon-to-be alderman "presented himself upon the steps of the prison, drew a revolver, and declared it to be his determination to shoot the first man who approached to the door." Forrest's resolve, no doubt underscored by his piercing gaze and emblazoned features, convinced the crowd that he meant business, and it slowly melted away before him. John Able would have his day in court, apparently thanks only to Nathan Bedford Forrest.
Such displays of bravery and boldness were indeed indicative of Forrest. His willingness to undertake action, even in the most extreme circumstances, was likewise a part of his makeup. But these were not the personality traits that the Able incident exposed. Rather, it was Bedford Forrest's penchant for embellishment and exaggerated storytelling that was apparently at work, for he actually played little more than a tangential role in the entire affair. Contemporary newspaper accounts do not credit him with rescuing John Able at rope's end or jail's door with knife or pistol in hand. By the time the Jordan and Pryor biography appeared, Forrest was struggling with postwar fiscal and emotional realities that must have proved daunting to one who thrived so heavily on controlling circumstances around him. Perhaps the intervening decade had dulled his memory, or more likely, he simply recalled the events as he had grown accustomed to telling them, with his role and its centrality to the story having grown over time.
(Continues...)
Excerpted from The River Was Dyed With Blood by Brian Steel Wills. Copyright © 2014 University of Oklahoma Press. Excerpted by permission of UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA PRESS.
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Table of Contents
List of Illustrations ix
Preface xi
Introduction: Race, War, Propaganda, and Memory 3
1 Warrior in an Uncivil War: 1821-1864 18
2 Fighting for Freedom: April 1861-April 12, 1864 38
3 "Attending" to Fort Pillow: April 1863-April 12, 1864 61
4 "Will He Fight or Surrender?": March-April 12, 1864 86
5 "The Slaughter Was Awful": April 12, 1864 105
6 "Remember Fort Pillow": April 12-June 1864 120
7 An Election Year Gets "Massacred": April 12-November 1864 148
8 Reaction to Fort Pillow: 1864-1865 162
9 "Forrest of Fort Pillow": 1865-2014 184
Epilogue: "War Means… Killing" 205
Appendix A Organization of Confederate Troops during the West Tennessee Campaign, March-April 1864 219
Appendix B Federal Officers at Fort Pillow, April 12, 1864 220
Notes 221
Bibliography 249
Index 265