Table of Contents
About the Editors, Authors, and Assistants xv
Preface xxiv
Acknowledgement xxxi
Acronyms xxxii
1 Basics of Lithium-Ion Battery Technology 1
Simin Peng, Yue Shen, Genkai Xia, Sahithi Maddipatla, Lingxi Kong, and Mohammed Saquib Khan
1.1 Lithium-Ion Battery Cell Structure and Chemistry 1
1.2 Definitions of Key Battery Performance Metrics 3
1.3 Energy Density and Safety Analysis of Battery Materials 4
1.4 Cathode Materials: LCO, LMO, LFP, NMC, NCA, and Li-SPAN 5
1.4.1 Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LCO) Battery 5
1.4.2 Lithium Manganese Oxide (LMO) Battery 6
1.4.3 Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) Battery 6
1.4.4 Lithium Nickel-Cobalt-Manganese Oxide (NMC) Battery 6
1.4.5 Lithium Nickel-Cobalt-Aluminum Oxide (NCA) Battery 7
1.4.6 Lithium-Sulfurized Polyacrylonitrile (Li-SPAN) Battery 7
1.4.7 Summary of Cathode Materials 7
1.5 Anode Materials: Carbon-Based, Silicon-Based, Metal, and Alloying Anodes 8
1.5.1 Carbon-Based Materials 8
1.5.2 Silicon-Based Materials 9
1.5.3 Metal and Alloying Anodes 9
1.6 Electrolytes: Liquid and Solid Electrolytes 10
1.6.1 Liquid Electrolytes 11
1.6.2 Solid Electrolytes 11
1.6.3 Summary of Electrolyte Comparisons 12
1.7 Separators 12
1.7.1 Polyolefin Separators 15
1.7.2 Nonwoven Separators 15
1.7.3 Ceramic Separators 15
1.8 Future Trends in Batteries 16
1.9 Summary 17
References 18
2 Global Suppliers of Battery Raw Materials 21
Simin Peng, Guanwei Jiang, Yu Zhang, Yulun Zhang, Kianoush Naeli, Virendra Jadhav, Sanjay Tiku, Sahithi Maddipatla, and Lingxi Kong
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Analysis of Raw Materials 22
2.3 Battery Cell Component Production 23
2.3.1 Positive Electrode Materials 24
2.3.2 Negative Electrode Materials 26
2.3.3 Electrolytes 28
2.3.4 Separators 30
2.3.5 Packaging Materials 32
2.4 Battery Management Systems 33
2.5 Summary 34
References 35
3 Lithium-Ion Cell Manufacturing Process and Form Factors 39
Simin Peng, Guanwei Jiang, Yuwei Nie, Yu Zhang, Lingxi Kong, and Sahithi Maddipatla
3.1 Lithium-Ion Battery (LIB) Structure Overview 39
3.2 Lithium-Ion Battery Manufacturing Process 39
3.2.1 Electrode Sheet Preparation 42
3.2.2 LIB Cell Assembly 44
3.2.3 Sealing of LIBs 45
3.2.4 Formation and Testing of LIBs 46
3.3 Advancements and Refinements in LIB Manufacturing 48
3.4 Summary 48
References 49
4 The Lithium-Ion Battery Market and Key Cell Manufacturers 51
Hayder Ali and Hassan Abbas Khan
4.1 History of Lithium-Ion Battery Commercialization 52
4.2 Expansion of the Lithium-Ion Batteries Industry 54
4.3 Geographic Distribution of Battery Manufacturing 54
4.4 Demand for Batteries 56
4.5 Leading Battery Producers Worldwide 58
4.5.1 Contemporary Amperex Technology Co., Ltd. (CATL) 59
4.5.2 BYD Co., Ltd. 59
4.5.3 LG Energy Solution, Ltd. 60
4.5.4 Panasonic Holdings Corporation 60
4.5.5 SK Innovation Co., Ltd. 61
4.5.6 Samsung SDI Co., Ltd. 61
4.5.7 CALB Group Co., Ltd. 61
4.5.8 Farasis Energy (Gan Zhou) Co., Ltd. 62
4.5.9 Envision AESC 62
4.5.10 Sunwoda Electric Battery Co., Ltd. 62
4.6 Battery Suppliers and Their Market Clients 63
4.7 Summary 64
References 64
5 Lithium-Ion Battery Cell and Pack Design Considerations 73
Yulun Zhang, Kianoush Naeli, Virendra Jadhav, and Sanjay Tiku
5.1 Cell Design Considerations 73
5.1.1 Mechanical Structure 73
5.1.2 Chemical Architecture 74
5.1.3 Safety Architecture: TCO 75
5.2 Pack Design Considerations 76
5.2.1 Cell Configurations in a Pack 77
5.2.2 Battery Management System (BMS) 79
5.2.3 Electrical Assembly 81
5.2.4 Mechanical Assembly 82
5.3 OEM Device Design Considerations 83
5.3.1 Device Functional and Performance Requirements 83
5.3.2 Enclosure Design for Battery Protection 84
5.3.3 Replacement and Reworkability 84
5.3.4 BMS and Smart Charging 85
5.3.5 Usage Patterns and Telemetry 85
5.4 Summary 86
References 87
6 Design and Process Failure Modes and Mechanisms 89
Sahithi Maddipatla, Saurabh Saxena, and Michael G. Pecht
6.1 Introduction 89
6.2 Failure Mechanisms in Li-Ion Batteries 91
6.2.1 Negative Electrode (Anode) 91
6.2.2 Positive Electrode (Cathode) 92
6.2.3 Electrolyte 92
6.2.4 Separator 92
6.2.5 Current Collectors 93
6.2.6 Battery Cap Structure 93
6.3 Lithium-Ion Cell Manufacturing Process 94
6.4 Role of the Design and Manufacturing Process in Battery Safety 95
6.4.1 Internal Short Circuit 97
6.4.2 Localized Heating 97
6.4.3 Increased Gas Generation 97
6.4.4 Malfunctioning of Safety Devices 98
6.5 Summary 99
References 107
7 Thermal Runaway and Mitigation Strategies 113
Simin Peng, Yue Shen, Genkai Xia, Sahithi Maddipatla, Lingxi Kong, Weiping Diao, and MichaelG.Pecht
7.1 Thermal Runaway in Lithium-Ion Batteries 113
7.2 Safety Mechanisms and Mitigation Strategies in Lithium-Ion Batteries 114
7.2.1 Current Interrupt Devices (CID) 114
7.2.2 Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) 116
7.2.3 Venting Mechanisms 117
7.2.4 Flame Retardants 118
7.2.5 Shutdown Separators 119
7.2.6 Metal-Polymer Current Collectors 120
7.2.7 Protection Circuitry and Battery Management System 120
7.2.8 Battery Thermal Management Systems 122
7.3 Safety Mechanisms Used in Cells with Different Form Factors 123
7.4 Summary 124
References 124
8 Battery Qualification 127
Rashed A. Islam
8.1 Key Performance Metrics 127
8.1.1 Capacity 128
8.1.2 Efficiency 128
8.1.3 Battery Cycle Life 129
8.1.4 Voltage Stability 130
8.2 Battery Qualification Process 130
8.3 Battery Qualification Testing Protocols 132
8.3.1 Cell-Level Qualification 133
8.3.2 Pack-Level Qualification 139
8.3.3 Product-Level Qualification 145
8.4 Caution Regarding Golden Samples 146
8.5 Analysis of Qualification Test Data 147
8.6 Ongoing Reliability Test 149
8.6.1 Cell- and Pack-Level ORT 149
8.6.2 Cell-Level ORT Guidelines 150
8.6.3 Pack-Level ORT Guidelines 152
8.6.4 Statistical Testing for ORT 154
8.7 Summary 155
References 155
9 Quality Control in Li-Ion Battery Production: Best Practices and Challenges 159
Dulja Bamunusinghe, Thisali S. Rathnayake, Raveen Sanjaya De Silva, Logeeshan Velmanickam, and Rashed A. Islam
9.1 Incoming Quality Control 159
9.2 Process Control Measures 160
9.2.1 Core Process Control Techniques in Lithium-Ion Battery Production 160
9.2.2 Implementing Effective Quality Control Measures 166
9.2.3 Interconnectedness of Process Control and Quality Management 168
9.3 Quality Gate Concept 171
9.4 Screening Technologies for Batteries 173
9.4.1 Optical Inspection 173
9.4.2 Ultrasonic Testing 174
9.4.3 X-Ray Inspection 175
9.4.4 Thermal Imaging 176
9.4.5 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) 177
9.4.6 Acoustic Emission Testing 178
9.5 Best Practices in Battery Quality Assurance 179
9.6 Challenges and Pitfalls 181
9.6.1 Raw Material Quality 182
9.6.2 Electrode Manufacturing 182
9.6.3 Cell Assembly 183
9.6.4 Electrolyte Filling 183
9.6.5 Formation and Aging 183
9.6.6 Testing and Inspection 184
9.6.7 Ensuring Consistent Quality in High-Volume Manufacturing 184
9.7 Key Components of a Quality Control Facility 184
9.7.1 Specialized Equipment 186
9.7.1.1 Battery Cell Testers 186
9.7.1.2 Thermal Imaging Cameras 187
9.7.1.3 Cycle Life Testers 187
9.7.2 Testing Tools 187
9.7.3 Skilled Personnel 189
9.8 Future Trends and Advancements in Battery Quality Control 189
9.8.1 Digitalization and Automation in Quality Control 190
9.8.2 Artificial Intelligence (AI), Predictive Maintenance, and Real-Time Monitoring in Quality Control 191
9.8.3 Optimization and Quality Control in the Supply Chain Management 192
9.8.4 Advanced Material Testing and Inspection Methods 193
9.9 Summary 194
References 194
10 Battery Supply Chain: Quality, Risks and Audits 203
Yulun Zhang, Kianoush Naeli, Virendra Jadhav, and Sanjay Tiku
10.1 Introduction 203
10.2 Quality Assurance: A Tool for Risk Mitigation for Battery Safety 204
10.2.1 Metrics 206
10.2.2 Metrology 206
10.2.3 Supply Chain Management 207
10.2.4 Data Analysis 207
10.2.5 Training 207
10.2.6 Feedback and Audit 208
10.3 Cell Manufacturing and Quality Risks 208
10.3.1 Risk Mitigation Practices for Cell Manufacturing 208
10.4 Pack Manufacturing and Quality Risks 210
10.4.1 Risk Mitigation Practices: Pack 210
10.5 OEM Device Integration and Quality Risks 212
10.5.1 Risk Mitigation Practices: Device Integration 213
10.6 Auditing Considerations 214
10.6.1 Audit Process 216
10.6.2 Auditing Frequency 217
10.7 Key Steps in Battery Selection 218
10.8 Summary 221
References 223
11 Storage of Lithium-Ion Batteries 227
Haibo Huo, Gifty Pamela Afun, Manoj Kumar Lohana, and Sahithi Maddipatla
11.1 Introduction 227
11.2 Incidents During Lithium-Ion Battery Storage and Analysis 228
11.3 Safety Tests for Storage of Lithium-Ion Batteries 229
11.3.1 UN Standard 38.3 229
11.3.2 IEC Standard 62281 230
11.4 Regulations and Standards for Daily Warehousing and Battery Energy Storage Systems 231
11.5 Lithium-Ion Battery Storage in the United States 232
11.5.1 US Battery Storage Specifications 232
11.5.2 US Daily Warehousing 233
11.5.3 US Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) 234
11.6 Lithium-Ion Battery Storage in China 236
11.7 Lithium-Ion Battery Storage in South Korea 237
11.8 Recommendations for Safe Storage Practices 240
11.8.1 Segregation and Separation Requirements 240
11.8.2 Ventilation and Temperature Control Measures 240
11.8.3 Fire Detection and Suppression Systems 241
11.8.4 Emergency Response Planning and Personnel Training 241
11.8.5 Monitoring and Inspection Protocols 241
11.9 Summary 242
References 243
12 The Transportation of Lithium-Ion Batteries 247
Dinithi Senarath, Prabhashi Amanda Andrahennadi, Nipun Iranga Wijesekara, Logeeshan Velmanickam, Niles Perera, Haibo Huo, and Gifty Pamela Afun
12.1 Introduction 247
12.1.1 Environmental Factors That Affect Battery Performance During Transportation 247
12.1.2 Effects of Environmental Factors on Battery Performance During Transportation 248
12.2 Regulations and Standards (and Specifically UN 38.3) 249
12.2.1 Specific Testing and Compliance Requirements 250
12.2.2 Cell-Level Tests and Concerns in Battery Transportation and Storage 251
12.2.3 Pack-Level Tests and Concerns in Battery Transportation and Storage 254
12.2.4 Product-Level Tests and Concerns in Battery Transportation and Storage 257
12.2.5 Analysis of Costs 259
12.3 Global Regulations Governing the Secure Transportation of Lithium-Ion Batteries 261
12.3.1 Regulations for Transportation by Air 262
12.3.2 Regulations for Transportation by Surface (Road/Rail/Sea) 264
12.4 Lithium Battery Transportation Regulations in Different Countries 271
12.4.1 Transportation Regulations in the United States 271
12.4.2 Transportation Regulations in China 273
12.4.3 Transportation Regulations in Europe 276
12.4.4 Transportation Regulations in South Korea 278
12.5 Global Regulations on Lithium Battery Disposal 281
12.6 Packaging and Safety Best Practices for Shipping Lithium-Ion Batteries 282
12.7 Summary 283
References 284
13 Battery Safety and Reliability Standards 291
İlknur Baylakoglu and Yan Ning
13.1 The Landscape of Battery Safety Standards 292
13.1.1 International and Regional Standards Organizations 293
13.1.2 Regional and National Regulatory Bodies 296
13.1.3 Certification Bodies 299
13.2 Battery Cell Safety and Reliability Standards 301
13.2.1 Transportation Standards 302
13.2.2 Abuse and Environmental Standards 303
13.2.3 Performance and Durability Standards 305
13.3 Battery Pack and System Safety and Reliability Standards 308
13.3.1 Transportation Standards 309
13.3.2 Abuse and Environmental Standards 310
13.3.3 Performance and Durability Standards 315
13.3.4 BMS Functional Standards 315
13.4 Safety Standards and Regulations Incorporating Batteries for Different Applications 317
13.4.1 Portable Devices (e.g., Smartphones, Laptops) 318
13.4.2 Automotive (Electric Vehicles, Hybrid Electric Vehicles) 318
13.4.3 Uninterruptible Power Supplies and Power Systems 320
13.4.4 Marine and Navy Applications 321
13.4.5 Avionics 323
13.4.6 Space Applications 324
13.5 Trends in New Battery Safety Standards 325
13.5.1 Evolving Battery Technologies 327
13.5.2 Sustainability 327
13.5.3 Battery Management Systems and Data Analytics 329
13.5.4 Second-Life Applications 329
13.5.5 International Collaboration 330
13.5.6 Standardization Gap Analysis 331
13.5.7 Fire Hazard Gap Analysis 334
13.6 Summary 334
References 335
14 Battery Rewrapping and Counterfeits 341
Lingxi Kong and Michael G. Pecht
14.1 Counterfeiting 341
14.2 Rewrapping 343
14.3 Counterfeit Batteries in the Market 344
14.4 Hazards of Counterfeit Batteries 348
14.5 Summary 349
References 350
15 Supply Chain Battery Regulations 353
Shalini Dwivedi and Aparna Akula
15.1 EU Battery Regulation 2023 353
15.2 Unveiling the Regulatory Framework: Key Features and Insights 354
15.2.1 Evolutionary Shift: Battery Regulation 2023 Versus Battery Directive 2006 355
15.2.2 A Forward Look at EU Battery Regulation 2023/1542 355
15.2.3 Navigating Challenges and Solutions 358
15.3 Battery Sustainability Practices Worldwide 358
15.3.1 United States of America (USA) 358
15.3.2 China 359
15.3.3 Japan 360
15.3.4 India 361
15.4 Summary 362
References 362
16 Right to Repair Legislation and the Implications on Battery Safety in the EU 365
Simin Peng, Quanqing Yu, and Yuwei Nie
16.1 Generation and Treatment of Electronic Waste in Europe 366
16.2 Key Points of the EU Right to Repair Regulations 369
16.3 Controversies and Discussions Triggered by the Right to Repair Rules 370
16.3.1 Manufacturers’ Concerns 372
16.3.2 Environmental Impact 373
16.3.3 Consumer Experience and Safety 373
16.3.4 Insurance Industry Perspective 374
16.3.5 Legal Ambiguities 375
16.3.6 Economic Considerations 375
16.4 Measures Taken by the EU to Improve Consumer Ability to Replace Batteries in Portable Devices 375
16.5 Arguments Against Allowing Consumers to Replace Smartphone Batteries 377
16.6 Summary 378
References 379
17 Battery Reuse and Repurposing: Balancing Sustainability with Risk 383
Shalini Dwivedi, Aparna Akula, and Michael G. Pecht
17.1 Discarding of Batteries 384
17.2 Repurposing of Lithium-Ion Batteries 385
17.3 Responsible Battery Repurposing: Navigating Resilience and Safety Concerns 386
17.3.1 Health of Retired Batteries 388
17.3.1.1 Counterfeit Batteries 388
17.3.1.2 Inadequate Testing 388
17.3.1.3 Compatibility Issues 389
17.3.1.4 Insurance Coverage 389
17.3.2 Beyond “Can We?”: Delving into the Imperatives and Challenges of Battery Repurposing 389
17.4 Summary 390
References 391
18 Risks Associated with Recycling and Disposal 395
Simin Peng, Jinkang Chen, Jie Wu, and Michael G. Pecht
18.1 Retired Batteries 395
18.2 Recycling 397
18.3 Disposal 399
18.4 Safety Risk Assessment and Suggestions for Different Treatments 399
18.5 Recycling of Batteries and Chemical Pollution Risks 400
18.6 Disposal of Batteries and Environmental Pollution Risks 401
18.7 Examples of Companies That Deal with the Retired Batteries 401
18.8 Standards for Retired Battery Treatment 403
18.9 Summary 406
References 407
Epilog: An Executive Summary 409
References 413
Index 415
