Read an Excerpt
Making Sense of the Bible
Literary Type as an Approach to Understanding
By Marshall D. Johnson Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company
Copyright © 2002 Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company
All right reserved. ISBN: 0-8028-4919-9
Chapter One
Morals, Manners, and the Good Life: Wisdom Literature
Because "wisdom literature" (proverbs and reflection on the meaning of life) is found in all human societies and in all ages of history, it is among the most familiar and accessible material in the Bible and is therefore taken up here in first place. Consider the timeless appeal of the following:
Pride goes before destruction, and a haughty spirit before a fall. (Prov. 16:18)
The human spirit will endure sickness; but a broken spirit - who can bear? (Prov. 18:14)
A word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in a setting of silver. (Prov. 25:11)
A good name is better than precious ointment, and the day of death, than the day of birth. (Eccl. 7:1)
My days are swifter than a weaver's shuttle, and come to their end without hope. (Job 7:6)
Do not judge, so that you may not be judged. (Matt. 7:1)
In everything do to others as you would have them do to you. (Matt. 7:12)
Proverbs, riddles, and other "wisdom sayings" are among the oldest fragments in our Bible. Jeremiah and Ezekiel quote and refute an old proverbthat suggests inherited guilt:
The parents have eaten sour grapes, and the children's teeth are set on edge. (Jer. 31:29 = Ezek. 18:2)
Other ancient sayings are found in 1 Sam. 10:12; 24:13; Jer. 23:38; Ezek. 16:44; and 1 Kgs. 20:11.
The Nature and Origin of Old Testament Wisdom Literature
Wisdom literature is the primary genre of the books of Proverbs, Job, Ecclesiastes, and several of the Psalms (for example, Pss. 1, 37, 49, 73, 127). In the Apocrypha the books of Ben Sira (Sirach or Ecclesiasticus) and Wisdom (Wisdom of Solomon) also fall into this category, as does the "letter" of James in the New Testament.
The Hebrew word hokmah, usually translated "wisdom," is broader in meaning than that English word. At least in early Israelite times (see Judg. 5:29; 2 Sam. 13:3 ["crafty"]; 14:2, 20; 20:16; Isa. 10:13; 29:14; Jer. 8:8-9; 9:23; 18:18), it suggested practical skill and technical expertise such as could be learned through life experience - the kind of professional savvy that leads to success in life. As such, the term is applied in the Old Testament to artists, musicians, craftspersons, weavers, goldsmiths, sailors, lamenters, temple singers, and soldiers who are skilled in their work. When applied to a proverb or discourse or piece of literature, the term came to denote both (1) advice on practical matters - manners and morals - such as in the books of Proverbs and Ben Sira and (2) reflections on larger questions of meaning - or the absence of meaning - in life, such as in the books of Job, Ecclesiastes, and the Wisdom of Solomon. Moreover, in what appear to be the earlier traditions of such material (for example, parts of Prov. 10-22 and 25-29 as well as passages listed above), Old Testament wisdom traditions in the beginning show few signs of what we would call religious piety. They concentrated instead on practical matters of personal life. As the centuries passed, however, wisdom literature became increasingly connected with the basic features of Israel's relation to God, so that it could be said, "The fear of the Lord [Yahweh] is the beginning of knowledge [or wisdom]" (Prov. 1:7).
In the passage of time, King Solomon (ruled 961-922 B.C.E.) came to be celebrated as the great Israelite patron of wisdom literature. This sentiment is echoed in 1 Kgs. 4:29-34:
God gave Solomon very great wisdom, discernment, and breadth of understanding as vast as the sand on the seashore, so that Solomon's wisdom surpassed the wisdom of all the people of the east, and all the wisdom of Egypt. He was wiser than anyone else, wiser than Ethan the Ezrahite, and Heman, Calcol, and Darda, children of Mahol; his fame spread throughout all the surrounding nations. He composed three thousand proverbs, and his songs numbered a thousand and five. He would speak of trees, from the cedar that is in Lebanon to the hyssop that grows in the wall; he would speak of animals, and birds, and reptiles, and fish. People came from all the nations to hear the wisdom of Solomon; they came from all the kings of the earth who had heard of his wisdom.
This passage makes several assertions about the nature and origin of Hebrew wisdom literature:
1. Israel's wisdom was of the same barrel as that of "the people of the east" (Sumer, Babylon, Assyria) and "the wisdom of Egypt." Indeed, there are abundant examples of such extrabiblical wisdom, much of it considerably older than that of the Old Testament. The Old Testament itself asserts that this kind of literature is not unique to the Bible. It is probable that some Egyptian wisdom traditions - the oldest in the ancient Near East - came to Israel by way of their southern neighbor, Edom (see Jer. 49:7 and Obad. 8).
2. The content of early Hebrew wisdom involved practical, everyday concerns and included references to common plants and animals.
3. There was a class or profession of sages or scribes. Jer. 18:18 lists three professional classes: the priest gives instruction, presumably in the laws; the prophet conveys the word (oracles of God); and the sage gives counsel. Through what agency the sage conducted his professional activity and earned his living, the sources, unfortunately, do not say. Did the royal court have an academy for young males from landed families to supply the need of the state bureaucracy for documents? Were sages employed by wealthy families? To judge by the lack of interest in communal worship in the wisdom literature generally, sages were not closely connected to the temple in Jerusalem.
4. Although 1 Kings engages in a bit of hyperbole with respect to Solomon's 3000 proverbs and 1005 songs, Solomon came to be remembered as the great patriarch of Israelite wisdom literature. Tradition assigns to him the authorship of much of the book of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, the Song of Solomon, the Wisdom of Solomon, and later books, like the Psalms of Solomon and the Odes of Solomon.
The contents of the books of Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes generally suggest that the sages instructed young men from prominent families. (1) The first 10 sections of the book of Proverbs begin with the words "my child" (or "my son," RSV). Warnings against sexual immorality, however, show that the instruction was for postpubescent males. (2) Moreover, the content suggests that young men - not women - are in mind. Women are mentioned, but mostly as mothers, wives, or harlots. (3) The young men are from prominent families: the bad habits to be avoided were sometimes expensive, and the virtues inculcated were often possible only for the well off (for example, table manners at banquets). Especially indicative is one of the main themes of Proverbs: success comes to those who deserve it by diligence, hard work, and, in some texts, piety.
Striking Distinctive Features
Israelite wisdom literature offers striking contrasts with other literary forms in the Old Testament:
Until the time of the writing of Ben Sira and Wisdom of Solomon, references to Israel's history - past, present, or future - are generally absent in wisdom literature. The two heroic epochs - of Moses and of David - are not alluded to. Nor is there mention of future judgment or restoration, as the prophets so typically emphasize.
The life of the individual - not society or the nation - is the focus of wisdom literature, whether it deals with manners and morals or with reflection on the meaning of existence. This concentration on personal life partly explains the seeming disinterest in Israel's history.
Only occasionally is there reference, either positive or negative, to the forms of Israel's worship (sacrifices, rituals, priesthood, festivals). The work of the sage does not significantly overlap with that of the priest.
The distinctive medium of Israelite prophecy - oracles of the Lord, in which the first-person pronoun refers to Yahweh - is missing. Instead of direct revelation, the sage offers advice derived from reflection on human experience, and this is often articulated by Lady Wisdom - wisdom personified.
If the prophets often speak on behalf of the disenfranchised, wisdom literature reflects the thinking and values of the established classes of society - the landed nobility and royalty.
To a degree greater than most other literary forms in the Bible, wisdom literature is an international form, practiced by the early Israelites in much the same way as it was carried out in Babylon and Egypt.
The Book of Proverbs
The book of Proverbs is a collection of collections, as we learn from the seven headings within the book:
The proverbs of Solomon son of David, king of Israel (1:1)
The proverbs of Solomon (10:1)
The words of the wise (22:17)
These also are sayings of the wise (24:23)
These are other proverbs of Solomon that the officials of King Hezekiah of Judah copied (25:1)
The words of Agur son of Jakeh (30:1)
The words of Lemuel, king of Massa, which his mother taught him (31:1, RSV)
Although each of these sections has its own history of compilation and its distinctive motifs, there are common assumptions and emphases. Human beings have a good deal of free choice about the course of their lives, often presented as a choice between two options (the "teaching of the Two Ways"), an emphasis seen in the typical contrasts that form the heart of proverbs - life/death, paths of uprightness/ways of darkness, integrity/perverseness, light/darkness, divine favor/divine punishment, and so on. Humanity is accordingly divided into two groups: righteous/wicked, wise/fools, diligent/slothful, misfortunate/ prosperous, rich/poor, the disgraced/the honored, humble/proud, etc.
Proverbs, moreover, suggests that each person gets what he (in light of the male orientation of wisdom literature, the masculine pronoun is justified here) deserves in this life. The righteous prosper and the wicked suffer. Along with this assumption (put to the test in the books of Job and Ecclesiastes), there is a high regard for the pleasures of life - wealth, friends, a good wife, wine, and especially a good reputation. Acting or looking like a fool, conversely, is to be avoided at all costs.
To judge from the contents and several close parallels with older Egyptian wisdom texts, some of the oldest material in the book of Proverbs is contained in chapters 10-22 and 25-29. This material can profitably be contrasted with the later discourses and proverbs in chapters 1- 9. A caveat: it is almost impossible to date collections of wisdom literature; the distinction here is simply between earlier and later material.
The older material is less pious and more secular in tone than what we find in chapters 1-9. Evincing a realistic view of life, the older proverbs deflate humbug by the use of common sense and witty or sarcastic remarks (comparable to passages in Job, Ecclesiastes, and some psalms, like Ps. 104). In such texts, God is the creator of the world, but humans have difficulty gaining true knowledge of God and of God's will. People are left to find meaning in their own lives by their own efforts. The good things in life are gained through intelligence and persistence rather than by an individual's piety. The wise man knows that riches might disappear overnight, but he will do everything possible to protect his assets. Prosperity gained through injustice, however, is not good. The pleasures of life are to be enjoyed, but in moderation. Each good, however, has its dangers and its opposites: wine can lead to drunkenness and conversation can turn to gossip. The wise person especially avoids fools (see Prov. 12:15-16; 14:16-18), flatterers, gossips, and contentious people in general. The basis for morality is always self-interest rather than general ideals, religious tradition, or revelation.
Those who are kind reward themselves, [but] ... the wicked earn no real gain. (Prov. 11:17-18)
Later wisdom, examples of which are found in chapters 1-9, by contrast, has a basic theme: "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge." More inward, more spiritual, with somewhat more sympathy for the poor, the widow, and the orphan, such wisdom is closely connected with faith and morality. No longer is there a great gulf between God and humans, but the personified figure of wisdom - a woman - communicates wisdom directly, similar in form to the oracles uttered by the prophets. The sage is thereby identified with the pious person and is contrasted to scoffers: "The mouth of the righteous brings forth wisdom, but the perverse tongue will be cut off" (10:31). The good things of life are here the results not only of toil and skill but also of the blessing of God. They are divine reward for piety, righteousness, and wisdom (3:14; 8:18; and often).
The distinctiveness of the later collections appears also and especially in a new and startling development: already in 1:20-23, personified Wisdom speaks (she is a woman, because the Hebrew word hokmah is feminine in gender, as is also the Greek, sophia):
Wisdom cries out in the street; in the squares she raises her voice....
"How long, O simple ones, will you love being simple? How long will scoffers delight in their scoffing ...?"
In a striking passage, 8:22-31, Wisdom addresses humankind in tones of a goddess who was begotten of the Lord before the creation of the world. She was installed or appointed by God either to rule or to be an associate with God in ruling. Although the meaning of v. 30 is uncertain, it suggests that Wisdom was a master builder with God in the acts of creation, and that divine Wisdom can be seen in the natural order of earth and sky and all that inhabits them. Moreover, on her own authority Wisdom reveals the way of life, truth, knowledge, justice, and righteousness (8:4), in contrast to Folly, also personified as a woman (9:13-18), who leads to death.
Later Jewish wisdom literature develops a number of themes from the more pious sections of Proverbs, including the personification of Wisdom (Sir. 24; Wis. 8:6).
Job
The universal high regard for the book of Job is due in part to its lofty poetry, in part to the timeless nature of the questions it takes up, and especially to the way this magnificent poet turns traditional wisdom on its head, exhibiting a fierce independence of attitude on the question of the relation of personal suffering and cosmic justice.
Traditional Israelite wisdom (and other parts of the Bible as well) insisted that rewards follow righteous behavior just as surely as disaster comes on the heels of unrighteousness and folly. The man Job, in some of the most irreverent language of the Bible, objects. The book desperately searches for meaning in the midst of personal suffering. Is there a relationship between guilt and suffering, between righteousness and prosperity? Several biblical writers, especially Deuteronomy and the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings, articulated the view that, because God has the prime value of power and the prime virtue of justice, what happens in history and in individual life is willed by God. This perspective, promoted both in the great poetic section of the book by Job's three friends and also in the prose prologue and epilogue, is heatedly questioned in the speeches of Job himself. The structure of the book, therefore, is of crucial importance in its interpretation.
(Continues...)
Excerpted from Making Sense of the Bible by Marshall D. Johnson Copyright © 2002 by Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company . Excerpted by permission.
All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.
Excerpts are provided by Dial-A-Book Inc. solely for the personal use of visitors to this web site.
