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Overview
In AD 453, Attila—with a huge force composed of Huns, allies, and vassals drawn from his already-vast empire—was rampaging westward across Gaul (essentially modern France), then still nominally part of the Western Roman Empire. Laying siege to Orleans, he was only a few days march from extending his empire from the Eurasian steppe to the Atlantic. He was brought to battle on the Catalaunian Plain and defeated by a coalition hastily assembled and led by Aetius. Who was this man that saved Western Europe from the Hunnic yoke?
Aetius is one of the major figures in the history of the late Roman Empire and his actions helped maintain the integrity of the West in the declining years of the Empire. During the course of his life he was a hostage, first with Alaric and the Goths, and then with Rugila, king of the Huns. His stay with these two peoples helped to give him an unparalleled insight into the minds and military techniques of these “barbarians” which he was to use in later years to halt the depredations of the Huns.
Ian Hughes assesses Aetius’ fascinating career and campaigns with the same accessible narrative and analysis he brought to bear on Belisarius and Stilicho.
“A lively, often insightful account of the declining years of Roman power in the West which will be of interest to students of Roman history, the onset of the Dark ages and early Byzantine history.” —The New York Military Affairs Symposium
Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9781783461349 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | Pen & Sword Books Limited |
| Publication date: | 07/19/2012 |
| Sold by: | Barnes & Noble |
| Format: | eBook |
| Pages: | 276 |
| Sales rank: | 595,914 |
| File size: | 16 MB |
| Note: | This product may take a few minutes to download. |
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CHAPTER 1
Historical Background and Early Years
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
At the time of the birth of Aetius, some time around the year AD 391, the Roman Empire had been in existence for many centuries. During that time the empire had constantly evolved and although most changes had been slow and complex only about 100 years before Aetius' birth there had been dramatic upheavals in its nature. In 284 Diocletian became emperor. His reign began at the end of a long period of instability and confusion caused by revolt and invasion. Although his predecessors had done much to help stabilize the empire, it was Diocletian's reign that saw the return of a more stable government under a long-lived emperor. There were still periods of instability, but his longevity allowed the empire a period in which to recover.
It is Diocletian and his (eventual) successor Constantine who are credited with overseeing a period of major political and military reform, although it should be acknowledged that in many cases they simply accepted and regularized the changes that had been ongoing throughout the third century, and that slow change would continue to occur after their deaths.
One of the most important changes had been the inauguration of the Tetrarchy. The Tetrarchy had divided the empire in half, each half being ruled by an Augustus (emperor). Each Augustus had his own Caesar (deputy and successor) to help run his half of the empire. As part of the bureaucratic system, each of the four co-rulers had a Praefectus Praetorio (Praetorian Prefect) to help with the administration of his 'quarter' of the empire. Each Praefectus wielded great power and could readily influence military affairs, as he retained control of the main logistical system of the empire. Although abandoned on the death of Diocletian, the system of using four Praefecti was revived under Constantine. As time passed the position of prefect became more influential, especially that of the two prefects in charge of the two imperial capitals.
Rome was now only the nominal capital of the Roman Empire. Two new cities had emerged as the major political centres of the empire: Milan in the west and Constantinople in the east. In both cases this was in large part due to their strategic locations. Milan, at the head of the Italian peninsula, was strategically placed to allow western emperors to defend Italy and campaign along the Rhine, whilst Constantinople, at the crossing point between Europe and Asia Minor, allowed eastern emperors to command personally Roman armies either in the east or in the Balkans.
The End of the Fourth Century
The sons of Constantine divided the empire between them, after which there was a series of costly civil wars. The eventual victor, Constantius II (d. 361), came to the conclusion that as the empire was being threatened in both east and west it was too big for one man to control. Emulating Diocletian, he enrolled his cousin Julian as Caesar (vice-emperor) with control in the west. When the two men disagreed, another civil war was triggered, but Constantius died in 361, before the two rivals could meet. Julian (360–363), known as 'the Apostate' because of his support for paganism, gathered his troops and led an ill-fated invasion of Persia, during which he died. The death of Julian in 363 effectively ended the Constantinian dynasty.
Jovian (363–364) was proclaimed emperor but soon afterwards died on the way to Constantinople. His successor was Valentinian (364–375), who, after being acclaimed by the army and close officials, quickly acclaimed his brother Valens (364–378) as joint-Augustus, with Valentinian taking the West and Valens the East. Diocletian's decision to divide the empire was now taken as the norm. Valentinian spent his reign repairing and reinforcing the defences of the west and attempting to enforce his will on the turbulent tribes across the Rhine and upper Danube. Valens, meanwhile, was given the task of minimizing the damage to the east from the unfavourable treaty with the Persians signed by Jovian.
In an attempt to secure the new dynasty, in 367 Valentinian declared his son Gratian as Caesar and successor. When Valentinian died in 375 Gratian prepared to take control of the west. However, the troops in Pannonia declared Gratian's half-brother, Valentinian II, as emperor and Gratian was forced to accept only Gaul, Spain and Britain, while Valentinian II ruled in Italy, Illyricum and Africa. Valens retained sole control of the east.
In 376 a large band of Goths under Fritigern appeared on the banks of the Danube seeking sanctuary from the Huns. Valens allowed them entry to the empire, but they were badly treated and broke into open revolt. In 378 Valens gathered an army together and led them to face the Goths in battle. Contrary to expectations, Valens was defeated and killed by the Goths at the Battle of Adrianople. Gratian was now the senior emperor. To rule the east, Gratian chose Theodosius, the son of a man also called Theodosius who had displayed military ability in the west before being arrested and executed in 376.
With Theodosius in the East and Gratian and Valentinian II in the West, the empire was slowly able to recover. After being defeated in a second battle against the Goths Theodosius led his forces in a campaign aimed at restricting the Goths' access to supplies and, in 382, his strategy was proved to be effective: the Goths capitulated. Although the Goths were beaten and forced to accept a treaty, they had not been crushed and remained united under their own leaders: an unprecedented move.
The Battle of Adrianople
Although the significance of the Battle of Adrianople is debated, one major factor had changed: after the battle, the Goths were a permanent political and military force within the empire. Their presence changed the way in which the Roman government dealt with barbarians. At first, this change was only visible when the Romans dealt with the Goths, but this quickly changed until it became the manner in which the court dealt with all barbarian leaders.
For the barbarians outside the empire the treaty was a revelation. The Goths had been allowed to settle under their own leaders. Prior to this, invading barbarians had been defeated and their leaders either executed or deployed on the far edges of the empire, away from their own men. The earlier attitude of barbarian leaders – that the empire was too large to defeat but was a tempting target for raids – changed. Now it appeared possible for barbarian leaders to enter the empire and coerce it into giving them lands and military positions at the head of their own troops. The emphasis of barbarian attacks slowly changed from being attempts to gain plunder, to attempting to force the empire to grant them lands and military posts within it. This change of emphasis was to have dire consequences for the west.
Theodosius and Civil Wars
Imperial neglect of Britain resulted in a man named Magnus Maximus being proclaimed as emperor by the British troops. When he crossed to Gaul, Gratian's troops deserted and Gratian was captured and executed. After a brief hiatus, Maximus invaded Italy against Valentinian II. This was unacceptable to Theodosius, who declared war and defeated Maximus, inflicting heavy casualties on the western army. Theodosius installed a Frankish general named Arbogast to support Valentinian, but instead Valentinian died in mysterious circumstances. Arbogast proclaimed a man named Eugenius as emperor of the West, and in a repeat of earlier events Theodosius invaded, heavily defeating the western army at the Battle of the Frigidus in 394 and removing Eugenius and Arbogast from power. He then proclaimed his son, Honorius, as western ruler, with Stilicho, the husband of Theodosius' adopted daughter Serena, as regent. When Theodosius died in 395 Aetius would have been about four years old.
Conclusion
Despite the fact that the reigns of Diocletian and Constantine are credited with halting the calamities of the 'third-century crisis', the establishment of the Constantinian dynasty hides the fact that civil wars continued to be fought. Further, the advent of succeeding 'dynasties' gives a misleading impression regarding a continuity of peace and a return to the quieter times of the second century.
In reality, change had been enormous. The empire now had two permanent courts, one in the east and one in the west. Although the emperors were quick to maintain the appearance of unity, the courtiers were intent upon maintaining the division and so preserving their positions and lifestyles. Furthermore, the losses suffered during the wars of the fourth century left the empire significantly weaker militarily, especially in the west. Yet at the time these weaknesses were hidden. The empire was now reunited under the dynamic leadership of an emperor who had been successful in war.
THE EMPIRE AT THE TIME OF AETIUS
Early Life
Unfortunately, the date of the birth of Flavius Aetius is unknown, but was around the year 391, as he is described as a 'young adolescent' in the year 405. More accuracy is impossible. He was born in Durostorum, in Moesia Secunda (Lower Moesia – see Map 1). His father was Gaudentius, a 'member of one of the leading families of the province of Scythia'. Little is known of Gaudentius. Born in the east, he was most likely a highranking eastern soldier who adopted the imperial family name – Flavius – as a sign of his loyalty to Theodosius and his heirs. After the death of Honorius in 395 Gaudentius accepted service in the west with Stilicho. His political status in the west was such that early in Honorius' reign he was able to marry the daughter of a prominent Italian family. Unfortunately, the fact that Aetius' mother was a rich Italian noblewoman is the only information we have. That Gaudentius married her is probably an indication that he was following Stilicho's policies of fusing eastern military command with western political influence, although it should be noted that romance may have had a very large part to play in the arrangement.
Stilicho controlled the army in the west between 395 and 408 and was commander during several military campaigns against the Goths under Alaric. Gaudentius probably began his service in the west as a protector domesticus (household guard), but in 399, shortly after the defeat of the revolt in Africa led by Gildo, he was given the post of comes Africae (Count of Africa) by Stilicho. This promotion was both a reward for his continuing loyalty and a sign that he was trusted by Stilicho to keep the grain shipments to Italy moving.
Having a father who was serving in the army, according to the law Aetius would spend his early years in the Roman military service. In his early life he would also be a witness to the political and military policies of Stilicho.
Like Stilicho (and possibly Constantius III) before him, Aetius appears to have begun his career in the elite corps of the protectores. The protectores began in the third century and over time became a bodyguard unit, reserved for individuals who were earmarked for rapid promotion. At an unknown time, and again like his older contemporary Stilicho, Aetius was transferred to the Tribunus Praetorianus (Partis Militaris) ('Military Praetorian Tribune', a tribune and notary on the imperial general staff). It is difficult to be exact about the nature of this post, mainly because very little information has survived in the sources. Unfortunately, the little we know of the Tribunus Praetorianus suggests that this may have been an honorary title, 'the significance of which is not clear', but which is known to have come with several privileges.
The latter promotion would have resulted in the acquisition of a relatively large amount of political rank for one so young. As will be seen, this would be important for the next stage in Aetius' career, but the appointment also demonstrates the high rank and political influence of Gaudentius.
The Civil Service
Following in his father's footsteps, Aetius was placed in a military post. This is significant since during this period the 'bureaucracy' of the empire had earlier been divided between the 'military' and the 'civil'. Despite the change, the civil service, or militia officialis, was always classed as part of the army, wearing military uniform, receiving rations, bearing the old, 'non-commissioned' ranks of the army and being entered on the rolls of 'fictive' units. For example, all clerks of the praetorian prefecture were enrolled in Legio I Adiutrix, a unit that had long ago ceased to exist as a military formation. The top civilian post was the Praefectus Praetorio (Praetorian Prefect). The Prefects acted as the emperor's representatives, governing in his name with legal, administrative and financial powers. Yet these were not the only powerful individuals at court.
The earlier consistorium ('consistory', council) had consisted of any individual ministers that the emperor wanted to consult about a specific topic. Probably by the date of Aetius' birth this had become more of a formal body with specific duties. It was replaced by the proceres palatii ('notables of the palace'), sometimes simply known as the palatium ('palace'). As its name implies, this was formed largely from those individuals whose employment kept them in close proximity to the emperor. Closest to the emperor, at least physically, was his personal household. Included in this category were the protectores et domestici ('corps of officer cadets'). From an early age Aetius was at the heart of the imperial court.
Of more importance were the principal imperial ministers whose support and advice would be of great consequence to the emperor. Amongst the most powerful of these men were the magister officiorum ('master of offices') and the comes sacrarum largitionum ('count of the sacred largesses'). The magister officiorum had many duties, including command of the agentes in rebus ('imperial couriers') and control of the scholae ('imperial bodyguard'). He also controlled the officia dispositionum and admissionum, and so managed the emperor's timetable and audiences. The comes sacrarum largitionum was in charge of finances, controlling the precious metal mines, the mints, and all revenue and expenditure in coin. These individuals each commanded a large number of men who served as rei privatae ('private secretaries'). They tended to be fiercely competitive and protective of their powers, rights and privileges.
All or any of these men could expect to be consulted by the emperor on important issues concerning their special field, and in the case of the most powerful individuals with regards to the whole running of the empire. Yet the delineation between these posts, especially at the top, was relatively narrow, and as a result often overlapped. This tended to cause friction between the top ministers of the empire.
The Army
The civil service accounted for only a tiny fraction of the population of the empire and a career in it appears to have been seen as a means of self-promotion and security. The same cannot be said of the army. The army was restructured at the same time as the civil service. Although sometimes perceived as a precursor to modern military hierarchies, care must be taken when looking at the organization and the apparent modernity it represents.
This is nowhere borne out more than in the Notitia Dignitatum. This massive document lists the postholders of the Roman army in a very hierarchical structure, with lower ranks apparently responsible to their superior. Although this is a very easy assumption to make, in reality things were not necessarily as they appear.
The emperor was the undisputed head of the armed forces. However, as events of the third century had shown, he could not be at all points where danger threatened, and from the reign of Valentinian and Valens the empire was permanently ruled by two different emperors at separate courts in the east and west. In the West, as time passed the command of the army moved away from the emperor and devolved upon the newly created magister peditum ('master of the infantry') and magister equitum ('master of the cavalry'). In the course of time the magister peditum became the more senior of the two posts. Yet the magister peditum had a major problem. The series of civil wars fought by Theodosius I at the end of the fourth century had greatly weakened the western army. Stilicho, Constantius III and their successors would always be short of the manpower necessary to reestablish fully the dominion of the West.
Finance and Taxation
In the fifth century inflation was still rampant in the West, despite the reforms of Diocletian (284–305) and Constantine I (306–337) and other attempts to calm matters by later emperors. Although these had resulted in the stabilization of the gold economy, lower-denomination coins continued to be debased. Furthermore, the coins for the West were being produced by only six official mints: Trier, Lyon and Arles in Gaul, Sirmium in Pannonia, and Aquileia and Rome in Italy.
In earlier centuries coins had been common items, their distribution largely being initiated by payments to the army, from where they had spread throughout the local economy. However, the cost of the army had taken its toll and in this later period there is some evidence of units not being paid, whilst in the late fourth century the troops began to be paid in kind rather than in coin. The change from a monetary system to one based upon agricultural production would have aggravated the preexisting economic instability and so ensured that many individuals became disenchanted with Roman rule.
(Continues…)
Excerpted from "Aetius Attila's Nemesis"
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Copyright © 2012 Ian Hughes.
Excerpted by permission of Pen and Sword Books Ltd.
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Table of Contents
List of Plates,
List of Maps,
Acknowledgements,
Foreword,
Introduction,
1. Historical Background and Early Years,
2. Aetius the Hostage,
3. Aetius Takes the Stage,
4. The Late Roman Army,
5. The Barbarians,
6. Magister Militum per Gallias,
7. Magister Militum Praesentalis,
8. Undisputed Leadership,
9. The Fall of Africa,
10. The Treaty of 442,
11. After Africa,
12. The Calm Before the Storm,
13. Crisis,
14. The Battle of the Catalaunian Plains,
15. Attila's Invasion of Italy,
16. The End,
17. Aftermath,
Conclusion,
Outline Chronology,
Imperial Family Tree,
Select Personalities,
Notes,
Bibliography,