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Form and Design in Classic Architecture
By Arthur Stratton Dover Publications, Inc.
Copyright © 2004 Dover Publications, Inc.
All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-0-486-13701-8
CHAPTER 1
CIRCULAR PLANS. PLATES III TO X.
THE circle gives one of the elemental plan forms, and it has always figured prominently in design by reason of the beauty of its curve and the endless variety which it introduces into a scheme. The theory underlying the application of the circle has been developed through the centuries in buildings of many types, ranging from small isolated structures of a commemorative nature to those of considerable size suitable for ecclesiastical and secular purposes.
The circular plan is generally accompanied by a domical section, for the dome has from early times been accepted as its logical covering because it gives the best vertical expression to the horizontal disposition. The support for a dome over a circular plan is readily obtained, and its arrangement so as to produce the most satisfactory result as seen from the interior has been one of the chief aims of builders at all times. Various arrangements of coffering have been devised by recessing panels within horizontal and vertical ribs, and when an unbroken surface for mosaic or colour decoration has not been required, one of the many varieties of coffering has invariably been used to give architectural expression to the concave surface. The properties of domical construction allow of an opening being left at the top, and advantage has been taken of this to let in light where it can be most impressively admitted through a circular "eye."
Externally many variations are permissible: the domical form may be visible, following the curve of the inner covering as nearly as permitted by the demands of sound construction. The lower part of the dome is sometimes masked by a vertical wall above which a conical roof conceals the curve of the dome completely, or the segment of the curve remaining above the vertical surface may be exposed. When it is desired to emphasise the dome externally and to admit light just beneath its base instead of at its summit, the dome may be raised on a vertical wall or "drum." Sections and elevations of these dispositions will be found in this series of Plates, and the theory of the setting-out of domes over rectangular sub-structures by means of "pendentives" is illustrated i on Plate XII.
The impossibility of producing satisfactory expression both internally and externally from the use of a single domical covering is apparent in the domed buildings of the ancients, but it was left to the architects of the Renaissance in Italy, France and eventually in England to construct the double and triple coverings which, in their hands, were productive of such magnificent results. But compositions culminating in domes, the inner and outer coverings of which are at different levels, do not come within the scope of this book as they belong to the more complex systems.
The diagrams on the following Plates have been arranged with regard to the approximate diameter of the dome most suitable for the type of plan and section shown, and they provide a basis for further development when the student has mastered the elementary principles which they illustrate.
Plates III and IV.—These illustrate the simplest types of circular plan with domical coverings, taken from authoritative examples. On Plate III, Nos. I, II and III, and Plate IV, No. I, are shown open circular structures which offer suggestions for garden pavilions, shelters for statuary, or fountains. No. IV has often been used to enclose a wellhead, but both this and No. V readily suggest the small private mausoleum or cenotaph.
Plate V.—The circular plan is shown here with an external peristyle, a favourite disposition at all periods, the domical covering not being necessarily expressed externally, as in No. I. The motives given in Nos. I, II and III, and in the perspective sketch (Fig. 1), are suitable for any structure of small size which is primarily monumental and intended to serve a single use, such as a mausoleum or memorial chapel. The example from Castle Howard, Yorkshire, Plate IV, No. II, is a well-known instance introducing a dignified arrangement of external steps. In No. III the dome is raised on a high "drum" pierced with windows, but light is still admitted through a central "eye" in the dome. The type shown in No. IV originated at Baalbec, Syria, and has been sparingly followed: the entablature breaking back from the columns of the peristyle to the circular wall in a series of curves gives a striking play of line, but as it lacks repose it is more suitable for a garden feature—as used by Sir William Chambers at Kew Gardens—than for a memorial of any kind. The lower plan, No. V, shows how the peristyle may be interrupted and a rectangular portico added to steady the effect of so many curving lines.
Plate VI.—These larger circular structures with sub-motives are especially suitable for memorial chapels and mausoleums. They are complete in themselves, but they can be adapted to form dominating features in a variety of compositions.
Plate VII.—The combination of the circle with the square shown in Nos. I, II and III was developed from a Roman type. This is the Chapelle Expiatoire at Paris and it is essentially in the nature of a memorial. Further applications of this theory are discussed and illustrated in Series II. The large circular motives shown on this Plate are applicable to buildings in isolated positions for such uses as national pantheons. In Nos. IV and V an external peristyle is provided, while in Nos. VI and VII the ambulatory is formed by a ring of internal columns. The building shown in Nos. VIII, IX and X belongs to the type of the Pantheon, Rome, which in almost every country figures as a motive for isolated domed buildings on the largest scale.
Plate VIII.—These circular motives are taken from plans which are set out with a view to obtaining internal vistas along axial lines, and they are suitable for points of interest in the arrangement of interiors. In such cases the domical covering is not necessarily expressed externally and the circular plan is enclosed within walls which become square so as to conform with the adjacent rooms. No. I is the simplest type, with light admitted through an "eye" at the crown of a coffered dome: in No. II pairs of columns are attached to the walls and carry an entablature, while in No. III columns stand free in front of recesses alternating with wide piers, producing an effective arrangement. In some cases it is necessary to continue the circular plan through two or more storeys, by means of a gallery or galleries, leaving a circular "well" in the centre. In No. IV the simplest way of achieving this is represented, and in No. V a circular range of columns is disposed on two floors, carrying a domical covering over the central "well" only.
Plates IX and X.—Further developments of the circular plan on a large scale are given here with interest centering in the interior treatment of the dome as part of a large conception. Several types of plan have been selected for illustration, but many other variations are possible. In Nos. I and II the dome would not be expressed as a dominating external feature. These and the interior perspective view on Plate IX are taken from the Museum at Berlin. It will be seen that a highly decorative effect results from this studied arrangement of an internal peristyle and the contrast of curves at different levels. In Nos. III, IV and V the dominant motive appears both internally and externally. These have been selected to show the development of the circular plan on lines of rich simplicity. Attention has been given to circulation and direct access, the staircases and other features being introduced as external steadying features without which no circular building of large scale can be regarded as entirely satisfactory. In No. IV double columns on radial lines separate the circular hall from the ambulatory and these columns are expressed externally by pilasters directly radial on plan. The steadying features in this case consist of a tetrastyle portico connected to the external wall of the rotunda, and a square bay containing a semicircular recess as a posterior feature. No. V shows a circular plan, consisting of eight bays internally, one of which is allocated to the entrance and staircase. The feature of the plan is the distribution of the internal composite piers. The gallery or upper ambulatory forms a prominent feature of the interior, additional height being given by an arcade supporting the dome. Externally the basement storey assumes a polygonal form of sixteen bays and the fine composition obtained by James Gibbs is suggested in the sketch reproduced in Fig. 2.
CHAPTER 2
CIRCULAR AND RECTANGULAR FORMS UNITED. PLATES XI TO XIV.
PLANS combining circular with rectangular forms have been widely used in the past and they lend themselves to many problems arising in modern practice. It is only possible here to deal with simple examples and to indicate methods of uniting the two elements which experience will enable the student to elaborate.
The combination of the square and the circle played an important part in English architecture of the late eighteenth century, when examples were evolved in which the circular feature dominates both horizontally and vertically, forming an architectural ensemble generally enriched with a peristyle. The works of the Brothers Adam, Sir William Chambers, the Wyatts and Sir John Soane show the practice that prevailed from about 1760 to 1820. Many compositions of this period are most attractive. Fanciful dispositions were developed in all countries during the Renaissance period which prove the desire felt by designers to achieve novelty within certain limitations. Both the circle and the ellipse have been used in planning at all periods to produce contrasts in architectural schemes. In France, during the closing years of the eighteenth century and during the regime of the Empire, this treatment was much favoured by French architects, while new theories were freely evolved at this period.
The circle with appendages is rarely found in large buildings : in the past it was reserved for comparatively small works, such as orangeries and pavilions. The circle when adopted as an integral feature of buildings on a large scale invariably governs the plan formation and, except in those cases where it is domed, it is not generally expressed externally. The principle of combining the circle with the square having been grasped, the theory is open to innumerable interpretations. The circle and the square can be used as primary motives in, the external expression of buildings of immense size, provided that the character of the building allows of this arrangement. The student who has developed his knowledge of buildings designed on geometrical principles will readily understand the possibilities of further combinations.
Plates XI and XII.—These show the circular plan used over a square substructure, a combination of two elemental plan forms in a vertical direction of the first importance, developed originally by Byzantine dome builders. Accepted in all countries throughout the Renaissance period, this application of geometry to the solution of a structural problem frequently occurs in modern buildings. The introduction of a domical covering gives expression to a plan by determining a climax in internal perspective, and it may also be relied upon to ensure that an important junction appears dominant.
On Plate XII the diagrams Nos. I to VI show alternative solutions of the domical problem, but plan No. I applies to all of them. The diagrams Nos. VII, VIII and IX illustrate the theory of the "pendentive." It is a property of the hemisphere that when cut by true planes, circles or segments of circles will be formed. If cut by four vertical planes, representing four supporting arches forming an inscribed square on plan, as shown in No. VII, the curves of four semi-circular arches will be produced, and the portions remaining at the four angles will constitute the pendentives. Thus the full semi-circle occurs only on the diagonal section, and a cross section gives a segment as seen in Nos. II and V. If the hemisphere is also cut horizontally at the level of the crown of the arches, nothing will remain of it beyond the four pendentives which, starting from the four angles of a square, form a circle on plan directly they unite. Upon this circle, once obtained, it is perfectly easy to place another hemisphere and to obtain a compound dome, as shown in No. VIII. The curve of the dome and of its pendentives is then no longer continuous, since the radius of the former is equal to half the side of the square instead of half the diagonal : the one, in fact, is invariably marked off from the other by a cornice or a series of mouldings, as in No. IV.
The dome, instead of being placed directly upon the pendentives can now be raised above them upon a cylindrical wall or "drum" of the required height, as in Nos. III and VI. This device facilitates the admission of light without cutting into and weakening the dome about its springing where strength is most required, and the additional height so gained gives a greater prominence to the external design of the domical covering. In the finest examples, prior to this development, the dome though majestic and all sufficient internally had shown externally as little more than an excrescence.
Plate XIII.—This shows circular and rectangular plan forms united in a building of three principal parts with connecting links. Such a building suggests a motive for orangeries, public shelters in parks or on the esplanades of watering places. The scheme also lends itself to the requirements of a sculpture gallery in the open or a memorial containing mural tablets.
Plate XIV.—This shows five varieties of the circular plan form united with the rectangle. Based on the design of the small eighteenth century casino, they have been selected on account of the precise adjustment of their parts and the variety of architectural contrasts which result. Although the casino is no longer considered in relation to a large country house, its features might well be embodied in the design of pleasure buildings for public use.
CHAPTER 3
SQUARE PLANS. PLATES XV TO XVIII.
AMONG the elemental plan forms which are in constant use, the square offers unlimited scope for treatment, ranging from isolated buildings of small dimensions to those of great size containing a geometrical patterning made up of sub-divisions both rectangular and circular. It is impossible to describe in detail the many uses to which the square form can be adapted, for it figures in buildings of every period and has been developed in a variety of ways. It would not be too much to say that the square and circular plan forms are the determining factors in design, and modern investigation of historic examples proves that the square has been taken as the unit in planning and design generally.
It is the object of the following series of Plates to give some of the chief dispositions accompanying the simple square plan, formed not only by enclosing walls but also by columns, as well as by walls in conjunction with columns. Such isolated structures, complete in themselves and generally of small size (Fig. 3), offer a wide range for design: in the larger examples, the square plan occurs in conjunction with subsidiary and sympathetic features showing the development from simplicity to complexity.
The square is frequently used as an interior motive in a composition made up of many parts and not necessarily expressed externally, and several ways of treating it are illustrated. It must be borne in mind that the square is the most difficult form for direct architectural treatment and one that calls, for a sound knowledge of geometry, for any departure from the simplicity of the square as an elemental plan form involves the introduction of smaller units in sympathetic consonance with the containing square. Buildings square in plan, when they are of simple type, generally correspond to the square in height, thus enclosing a space which approximates in its three dimensions to the cube, while the double cube is accepted as a satisfactory disposition of length and width to height under almost any circumstances.
The illustrations show a variety of treatments mostly based upon actual examples, in which the design of external frontispieces, with or without colonnades, and internal vaults, domes and ceilings indicates the application of the unit and deals with the elements of support and covering. The exterior design of small square features generally resolves itself into the expression of pediments, pyramidal roofs or curved and sloping coverings. Sometimes the pediment is lifted to accommodate a semi-circular lunette or a parapet is introduced to mask a flat roof.
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Excerpted from Form and Design in Classic Architecture by Arthur Stratton. Copyright © 2004 Dover Publications, Inc.. Excerpted by permission of Dover Publications, Inc..
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