The Tudor age was a pivotal period of English history. In little more than a century, the nation was transformed from a medieval kingdom to a modern state, from an insignificant offshore island to a major world power.
Life in Tudor England sparkles with colourful illustrations and a lively text. Discover what life was really like during more than 100 years of Tudor rule in this pivotal period of English history: how industry became an alternative to agriculture as a means of employment; the lavish fads, fashions and fun enjoyed by the rich; the hardships suffered by the poor as inflation spiralled. All is revealed in this enticing taste of days gone by.
Look out for more Pitkin Guides on the very best of British history, heritage and travel, particularly the other books in the 'Life in ' series: Medieval England, in a Monastery and Victorian Britain.
The Tudor age was a pivotal period of English history. In little more than a century, the nation was transformed from a medieval kingdom to a modern state, from an insignificant offshore island to a major world power.
Life in Tudor England sparkles with colourful illustrations and a lively text. Discover what life was really like during more than 100 years of Tudor rule in this pivotal period of English history: how industry became an alternative to agriculture as a means of employment; the lavish fads, fashions and fun enjoyed by the rich; the hardships suffered by the poor as inflation spiralled. All is revealed in this enticing taste of days gone by.
Look out for more Pitkin Guides on the very best of British history, heritage and travel, particularly the other books in the 'Life in ' series: Medieval England, in a Monastery and Victorian Britain.
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Overview
The Tudor age was a pivotal period of English history. In little more than a century, the nation was transformed from a medieval kingdom to a modern state, from an insignificant offshore island to a major world power.
Life in Tudor England sparkles with colourful illustrations and a lively text. Discover what life was really like during more than 100 years of Tudor rule in this pivotal period of English history: how industry became an alternative to agriculture as a means of employment; the lavish fads, fashions and fun enjoyed by the rich; the hardships suffered by the poor as inflation spiralled. All is revealed in this enticing taste of days gone by.
Look out for more Pitkin Guides on the very best of British history, heritage and travel, particularly the other books in the 'Life in ' series: Medieval England, in a Monastery and Victorian Britain.
About the Author
Peter Brimacombe is an experienced Pitkin author and photographer with numerous titles on history and heritage. His titles and guides range from Capability Brown to Life in Stuart England and The Edwardians.
Read an Excerpt
Life in Tudor England
By Peter Brimacombe
The History Press
Copyright © 2013 Pitkin PublishingAll rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-0-7524-9173-8
CHAPTER 1
The Tudor Age
THE TUDOR AGE WAS a pivotal period of English history, and affected all parts of the British Isles. In little more than a century, England was transformed: from a medieval kingdom won in battle to a thrusting 'modern' state; from an insignificant offshore island to a world power. It was a time of enterprise and opportunity, when people of humble background could rise to greatness serving monarchs who ruled as autocrats.
Catholics and Protestants fought for people's souls, while intellectuals and artists were inspired by the spirit of inquiry and energy of the Renaissance. Bold seamen in sailing ships broadened the horizons of the known world and challenged the might of Spain, Europe's dominant superpower. The defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 was a national triumph, preserving the rule of Henry VIII's daughter Elizabeth I as 'Gloriana', and through war and troubles the nation prospered.
England's population doubled; towns expanded and London became one of the major cities of Europe. Industry grew as an alternative wealth-creator to agriculture, and the merchant classes sought political power to match their wealth. Immigrants arrived: by the 1580s one third of the population of Norwich were Flemish refugees from religious persecution in the Netherlands. Tudor England achieved a sense of pride and nationhood, and a growing reputation for scholarship and literature.
With the passing of Elizabeth I in 1603, the 'golden age' dimmed; Tudors gave way to Stuarts, and a fresh chapter for a newly united kingdom opened.
CHAPTER 2Tudor Kingdom
HENRY TUDOR'S DEFEAT of Richard III at Bosworth in 1485 began the Tudor age. The kingdom he acquired through force of arms had been ravaged by the long-running Wars of the Roses. Henry established lasting peace and his citizens benefited accordingly. The England which his son Henry VIII inherited 24 years later was a far happier place.
Henry VIII's dramatic break with Rome, the dissolution of the monasteries, the conquest of Ireland and his numerous marriages initially had little effect on people outside the Court. Thus his grateful subjects could improve their fortune and social status unhindered.
A rapidly expanding middle class became increasingly affluent, particularly the numerous merchants and traders – men such as the successful glover John Shakespeare whose third son became the greatest dramatist the world has ever known. In these favourable circumstances many men of lowly origins became hugely successful. Thomas Wolsey, a butcher's son, rose to Cardinal and Lord Chancellor. The father of the equally powerful Thomas Cromwell had been a cloth worker, while Archbishop Thomas Cranmer was originally a divinity lecturer.
Fortunes took a downturn when Henry's sickly son Edward became king. Inflation rose rapidly during his short yet disastrous reign and spiralled out of control when his half-sister Mary became ruler. Prices doubled between 1540 and 1558 when this unhappy and unpopular queen, who had attempted to restore Catholicism amidst brutal religious persecution, died. Thus Mary's half-sister, Elizabeth, inherited a dispirited and divided nation. Yet, aided by a wise Council, she turned England into a kingdom envied by the rest of the world. This much loved monarch enabled her citizens to become proud and prosperous, ending the Tudor dynasty in triumph.
CHAPTER 3Rich and Poor
WHEN HENRY VII became king, England's population was under two million, but by the end of his granddaughter Elizabeth's reign it had risen to more than four million, with one fifth of people living in towns. London had grown from a mere 60,000 citizens to over 300,000, other major towns being Norwich, the centre of the textile trade, Bristol, the second largest port after London, and York, the capital of the north. Elsewhere, Maid-stone was twice the size of Manchester, and Stratford-upon-Avon was a thriving market town with nearby Birmingham merely a village.
This population explosion prompted a massive building programme. The attractive half-timbered buildings in places such as Lavenham, Shrewsbury, Stratford-upon-Avon, Chester and Ludlow date back to Tudor times. Yet romantic-looking façades often concealed squalid interiors. 'The floors are commonly of clay strewn with rushes under which lie an ancient collection of beer, grease, fragments of bone, spittle, excrement of dogs and cats and everything that is nasty,' complained Erasmus in 1530. The learned Flemish humanist was the archetypal complainer, moaning about Cambridge's cold, damp climate and the 'raw, small and windy college ale'.
ELIZABETHAN POOR LAWS
Poverty became an increasing problem in the 16th century as numerous vagrants roamed the country. In 1570 there were 2,000 beggars in Norwich alone, 10 per cent of that city's population. Repressive Poor Laws were enacted and poor houses established which offered conditions so dire that only the most needy could not refuse them. Elizabethans, however, although materialistic, could be remarkably charitable and money hitherto given to the church now often went to the poor.
Huge country houses such as Longleat, Hardwick Hall, Burghley and Montacute, together with smaller, equally attractive manor houses like Athelhampton, Trerice and Kelmscott, were constructed by nouveau riche, thrusting Tudor entrepreneurs, who thrived in an era that greatly encouraged energy and enterprise.
Not everybody prospered. The cost of food and other essential goods required by the average artisan family increased fivefold during the 16th century. Since wages failed to keep pace with this inflationary spiral, the gap between rich and poor widened considerably, creating widespread poverty. Such were the realities of life in so-called 'Merrie England'.
CHAPTER 4Tudors at Work
THE CITIZENS OF TUDOR ENGLAND were astute, energetic and determined to succeed. Industry and commerce provided numerous new opportunities for advancement. Traditional agricultural practices were transformed due to improved husbandry, enclosure of common land, and the stimulus of providing food for rapidly expanding urban populations. New crops such as hops, turnips and potatoes were introduced, but a growing European demand for English cloth meant that progressively more land was used for rearing sheep rather than growing crops.
The authorities became alarmed by the amount of woodland being felled to provide timber for greatly increased house construction, ship building and for smelting in a developing iron industry. In response, coal mining grew eightfold between 1540 and 1640. Ironically, most 16th-century industry was concentrated in the Weald in Kent, East Anglia and the Cotswolds, now all areas of great rural beauty. The latter two regions were centres of cloth weaving, whereas the iron industry was located in the Weald at that time.
Trade with newly discovered overseas territories increased dramatically during the 16th century, dealing in exotic products like spices, gold, ivory and silk, whilst intrepid seafarers such as John Hawkins and Francis Drake prospered from slave trading from Africa and privateering on the Spanish Main. Bristol, Southampton and Plymouth became major ports trading with the New World. In London the River Thames provided, 'a sure and beautiful place for shipping', with 2,000 boats plying for trade. London was the centre of the most powerful guilds and livery companies. The Muscovy Company of Merchant Adventurers began to trade with Russia in 1553, and, at the end of the century, the formation of the East India Company initiated the British Empire.
WORKING WOMEN
Job prospects for women were poor in the 16th century. Although two of the five Tudor monarchs were female, most work available was of a menial nature involving long hours and poor pay. The legal and medical professions grew rapidly, but were open only to men. There were no women members of Parliament, livery guilds or universities. A woman's place was in the home – dutiful wife or faithful servant.
CHAPTER 5Tudors at Play
TUDOR ENGLAND WORKED HARD and played hard: 'Sometimes their necks are broken, sometimes their backs, sometimes their legs, sometimes their arms' – not a description of some brutal medieval torture, but 16th-century football. This sport was hugely popular, especially on occasions such as Shrove Tuesday and Ascension Day when entire villages played each other in ferocious all-day encounters, the object being to capture the ball and bring it back to their own village. The authorities frowned on football thinking that it diverted the villagers from archery, a far more useful recreation which practised military skills.
Higher up the social order, jousting could be equally robust. Huge crowds of ordinary folk paid to watch handsome young Henry VIII and later the charismatic Earl of Essex, although by this time jousting had become more of a colourful pageant than a mock military encounter. Henry was also skilful at real tennis, an intriguing game still played at Hampton Court. The gentry hunted deer, indulged in falconry and played bowls – even, as legend has it, as the Armada approached.
The Tudors developed lawns largely for the purpose of playing bowls. 'My Lord under a tree ... walks with a book in his hand to keep him from sleeping and we ready with bowls, but the weather somewhat too warm yet,' wrote one of Lord Burghley's retainers. Pall-mall, a form of croquet, was also played on grass.
Other gentle activities included board games and cards, including whist which was invented in Tudor times. According to the playwright Ben Jonson, Queen Elizabeth cheated at cards – like most Tudors she took games seriously and always played to win.
CHAPTER 6Dressing Up
THE TUDORS VALUED TRADITION and adored dressing up whatever the occasion. Those at Court lavished fortunes on fashion. Elsewhere, those who had become successful could be equally flamboyant: 'The lawyers they go ruffling in their silks, velvets and chains of gold,' noted a 16th-century follower of fashion. Furs and silks were favourite materials, purple a much loved colour, together with masses of jewellery, embroidery and lace.
Men paraded in tightly padded doublet and hose, starched ruffs and extravagant hats. Women postured in ruffs forming dramatic collars, their stiffened bodices flared out into enormous hooped skirts called farthingales. Further down the social scale, outfits were more conservative, the emphasis being on good quality cloth. Working class attire was made of rough wool or cotton.
'IF MUSIC BE THE FOOD OF LOVE ...'
Music was very important in the Tudor era at all levels of the social scale. King Henry VIII and Queen Elizabeth were both skilled instrumentalists and Francis Drake employed a string quartet aboard the Golden Hind during his historic round-the-world voyage. All over England any skilled fiddler was always in great demand and could command large sums of money to perform at village gatherings.
The traditional weekly market was both business enterprise and social occasion, somewhere to purchase a wide variety of goods, meet friends and exchange the latest gossip. The annual fairs lasted two weeks or more, the most famous being at St Bartholomew's at Smithfield in London and Stourbridge near Cambridge. Traders and customers came from far and wide. There were wrestlers, jugglers, minstrels, fortune tellers, dancing bears and all manner of entertainment. Dancing was particularly popular with all classes in Tudor England, enjoyed equally at Court or around the village maypole. Dances included the volta, pavane, gaillard, Lady Carew's dompe and the Bishop of Chester's jig.
Christmas festivities were equally classless. Celebrations lasted twelve days, a time when the Lord of the Manor entertained not only wealthy friends but also the village poor with feasting, singing, dancing and plenty of games. The Tudors certainly knew how to enjoy themselves.
CHAPTER 7Wives and Mothers
A TUDOR MARRIAGE was usually a carefully orchestrated affair, be it for monarch or commoner – a business arrangement to safeguard family fortunes, enhance wealth and property and advance social status. The bride was expected to provide an appropriately large dowry. Love matches and Romeo and Juliet scenarios were strictly for the stage. Many Tudor couples married in their mid-20s, late marriage being a feature of English life. This reduced a woman's childbearing years, though unexpected pregnancies were frequent – Shakespeare evidently married Anne Hathaway after she became pregnant. Breast-feeding a child for many months was common, with the aim of inhibiting conception. One method of birth control involved drinking honey-suckle juice for 37 consecutive days. Adultery was unlawful, as was abortion – a woman faced execution if unable to prove her child had died of natural causes. Conversely, barren women were advised to touch the hand of a hanged man in order to improve their chances of becoming pregnant.
Motherhood remained a hazardous affair. Many women, including Jane Seymour and Catherine Parr (two of Henry VIII's wives), died in childbirth through inadequate medical procedures and poor hygiene at the time of delivery. The traditional regard for the midwife's abilities declined in the Tudor era due to the growing importance of male physicians, and the midwife's skill even became confused with witchcraft. As there was still no satisfactory substitute for breast-feeding, however, the wet-nurse remained an essential part of a newborn baby's welfare.
Infant mortality was high – one third of all 16th-century children died in their first five years. It would seem that being either a mother or an infant in the Tudor age was fraught with difficulty.
CHAPTER 8Life and Death
LIFE IN TUDOR ENGLAND could seriously endanger your health – even monarchs were not exempt. Henry VIII possibly had syphilis but might well have been suffering from scurvy, a disease shared by sailors and the upper classes, the latter believing that vegetables were fit only for the poor. Edward VI probably died of consumption (tuberculosis) contracted after measles – 'Lord God, free me from this calumnious life,' was his anguished deathbed cry. Queen Mary had cancer. Queen Elizabeth contracted small-pox, a virulent disease which first appeared in England during 1514.
Malaria was rife amidst the marshes of Essex and the Fens and syphilis was as dangerous and as feared as Aids is today, but worst of all was bubonic plague, for which there was no known cure. It wiped out one sixth of the population of London in 1603. In the words of a contemporary ditty:
'Some streets had churches full of people weeping, some others had taverns rude revel keeping.'
ORIGINS OF MODERN HOSPITALS
A beneficial by-product of the dissolution of the monasteries was the creation of new hospitals in London. St Bartholomew's, a medieval monastic foundation, was re-endowed by Henry VIII, and Edward VI founded Christ's Hospital and re-founded St Thomas's, which had also been a monastic community where monks had cared for the sick and the poor. Tudor medicine remained a mixture of science, superstition and chicanery.
The average life expectancy in 16th-century England was a mere 38 years.
Remedies were weird and wondrous, such as drinking a powder of dried earth-worms in broth made from a newt's tongue, or swallowing roasted onions filled with treacle and pepper. Diagnoses could be aided by examining urine according to the phases of the moon, or using blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black pig. Amputations were cauterised with boiling oil and treacle, and a universal cure for virtually everything involved bloodletting with leeches. Remedies invariably seemed worse than the disease.
Physicians and surgeons vied for supremacy, both looked down on apothecaries, and all feared 'quacks' stealing their business. 'Report to the Saracen's Head in the East End to have remedy by me,' declared one enterprising 'quack's' advertisement.
(Continues...)
Excerpted from Life in Tudor England by Peter Brimacombe. Copyright © 2013 Pitkin Publishing. Excerpted by permission of The History Press.
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