Table of Contents
1. Introduction and Rationale
Contemporary Psychological Testing
Contemporary Psychotherapy Research and Practice
The Implications of Research Stuckness for Clinical Practice
Summary and Conclusions
2. A History of Traits
The Seeds of Conflict
The Desire to Be Scientific
The Model of Physiology
Biology and Individual Differences
The Desire to Be Relevant
The Need for Classification
The Consequences of the Adoption of a Trait-Based Measurement Paradigm
Loss of Experimental Methods Inhibits Recognition of Method Variance
The Gain of Traits and Loss of Situations
Handling Error with Classical Test Theory
Statistics Related to Measurement
Assessment as a Complement to Measurement
Deemphasizing Measurement Theory
Loss of Precision
The Wisdom and Tyranny of Tradition
The Success and Failure of the Market
Summary and Implications
3. Reliability, Validity, and Systematic Errors
Introduction
Thinking about Reliability and Validity
Types of Validity
Constructs, Theories, and Valid Measurement
Construct Explication
Multitrait–Multimethod Matrices: Investigating the Effects of Method Variance on Validity
Campbell and Fiske
Criteria for Construct Validity
An MTMM Example
Problems with Campbell and Fiske's approach
The Factor Analytic Approach to Construct Validity
History of Self-Report and Interview Errors
Self-Reports
Interviews and Observational Methods
Measurement Error
Systematic Errors Associated with Self-Reports
Dissimulation and Malingering
Social Desirability
Systematic Errors Associated with Ratings by Others
Halo Errors
Leniency and Criticalness Errors
Causes of Inconsistency
Cognitive Influences
Item Comprehension Problems
Test Cues
Low Cognitive Ability
Affective and Motivational Influences
Test Anxiety
Negative Emotional States
Environmental and Cultural Influences
Reactivity
Stereotype Threat
Summary and Implications
4. States, Traits, and Validity
Introduction
History
The Controversy of Mischel and Peterson: The Benefits of Conflict
The Rejection of Traits: Behavioral Assessment
Reinforcing the Trait Argument
Person–environment Interactions
Aptitude-by-Treatment Interactions
Environmental Assessment
Moderators of Cross-Situational Consistency
Summary and Integration
5. Context Effects and Validity
Introduction
Understanding Inconsistency: Clues from Psychophysics Measurement
The Limitations of Psychophysical Measurement
Conclusions and Implications from Psychophysical Research
Improving the Principles of Construct Explication
Test Purpose
Test Content
Test Context
Shared Contexts and Method Variance
Applications
Recommendations Related to Test Purpose
Recommendations Related to Test Content
Recommendations Related to Test Contexts
Summary and Implications
6. Nomothetic Approaches to Measuring Change and Influencing Outcomes
History and Background
Examples of Nomothetic Measures
Beck Depression Inventory
State–Trait Anxiety Inventory
Global Assessment of Functioning
Outcome Questionnaire
Psychometric Principles and Nomothetic Measures
Reliability of Nomothetic Measures
Validity
Applications
Creating Change-Sensitive Measures
Psychometric Properties of Aggregate Scales
Using Change-Sensitive Tests in Program Evaluations
An Evidence-Based Approach to Supervision
Summary and Integration
7. Idiographic Approaches to Measuring Change and Influencing Outcomes
History and Background
Psychometric Principles and Idiographic Measures
Reliability of Idiographic Measures
Validity of Idiographic Measures
Applications
Begin with the Case Conceptualization
Explicate Constructs
Measure Behaviors
Collect as Much Data as Possible
Data Analysis Procedures for Idiographic Data
Consider Progress Notes for Process and Outcome Data
Summary and Implications
8. Summary, Integration, and Future Directions
Major Ideas
Initial Findings and Future Research
Nomothetic Outcome Measures
Idiographic Outcome Measures
Context Effects
Innovative Research Methods
Conclusion
