Poland Betrayed: The Nazi-Soviet Invasions of 1939
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Poland Betrayed: The Nazi-Soviet Invasions of 1939
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Overview
Hitler’s military offensive against Poland on September 1, 1939 was the brutal act that triggered the start of World War II, wreaking six years of death and bloodshed around the world. But the campaign is often overshadowed by the momentous struggle that followed across the rest of Europe.
In this thought-provoking study, each stage of the battle is reconstructed in graphic detail. The author examines the precarious situation Poland was in, caught between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. He also reconsiders the pre-war policies of the other European powers—particularly France and Britain—and assesses the evolving scenario in a vivid, fast-moving narrative.
Included throughout are first-hand accounts of soldiers and civilians who were caught up in the war as well as the Polish capitulation and its tragic aftermath.
Product Details
| ISBN-13: | 9781848849808 |
|---|---|
| Publisher: | Pen & Sword Books Limited |
| Publication date: | 02/20/2019 |
| Series: | Campaign Chronicles |
| Sold by: | Barnes & Noble |
| Format: | eBook |
| Pages: | 256 |
| Sales rank: | 637,218 |
| File size: | 3 MB |
About the Author
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CHAPTER 1
Background
* * *
Poland: The Crucified Nation
Historian Norman Davies described Poland as a 'country on wheels both in regard to its geographical location and also to its exits and entrances on the political stage'. For 200 years, from the 16th to the 18th centuries, after the union of Poland with Lithuania, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth formed one of the largest political entities in Europe. Yet, as a result of internal political instability it became increasingly vulnerable to its neighbours, Russia, Prussia and Austria, who, in the partitions of 1772, 1793 and 1795, effectively divided up this once proud state amongst themselves. Although the Poles several times revolted against the partitioning powers, the re-establishment of an independent Poland was to depend on the simultaneous defeat of the three great Eastern European powers, Prussia, Austria and Russia. This occurred in the early 19th Century when Napoleon destroyed the military capabilities of first Austria, then Prussia and Russia. He then created a Polish satellite state, the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, but once France was defeated in 1814 by the victorious Anglo-Russian, Prussian and Austrian coalition, Poland was again partitioned by the three Eastern powers. For a short time Tsar Alexander of Russia granted Russian Poland – or Congress Poland as it was called – a constitution, but this was soon abrogated.
The Polish poet, Zygmunt Krasinski, in his epic poem of 1843, The Moment Before Dawn, depicted the partition and suffering of Poland as a sacrifice for the sins of the world, but he was also convinced that, as a result of this sacrifice, Poland was destined to emerge spiritually strengthened as a great world leader. In effect, he saw Poland as a Christ amongst nations. Such sentiments as these, as well as tenacious attempts to preserve Polish culture and language, helped keep the spirit of Polish nationalism alive. There were two revolts in the Nineteenth Century, the insurrections of 1830–31 and 1863–4, but as long as Prussian Germany and the Austrian and Russian empires had an interest in continuing partition, there was no hope of re-establishing a united Polish state. In 1914, however, with the outbreak of the First World War, for the first time for nearly 150 years St Petersburg was at war with Berlin and Vienna, creating a window of opportunity for resurrecting the Polish state in some shape or other. All three empires attempted to appeal to Polish nationalism by promising to form some sort of Polish state after the war. The Austrians also allowed a Polish Legion to be formed for service on the Eastern Front, commanded by the charismatic nationalist, Joseph Pilsudski. In the West, the Polish National Committee was set up in Paris, in an attempt to win over the Western powers to the cause of Polish independence, but for fear of offending their allies, the Russians, neither France nor Britain would initially commit themselves to backing an independent Poland.
In 1917 the situation did, however, dramatically change with the outbreak of revolution in Russia and the entry of America into the war. On 31 March 1917 the new Provisional Government in Petrograd issued a proclamation of Polish independence, while President Wilson, in his Fourteen Points of January 1918, established national determination as the main principle on which the future peace settlement with the Central Powers was to be based. These programmes could not immediately be put into effect as the Germans had occupied Russian Poland and set up a puppet state there. The Polish Legion was now transferred to German control and when Pilsudski and several other officers refused to swear loyalty to the German Kaiser, they were arrested and imprisoned in the fortress of Magdeburg.
Emergence of the New Poland 1918–20
In the autumn of 1918 both the Austrian and German empires were defeated and a vacuum of power subsequently opened up in Eastern Europe, which created the preconditions for a restored Poland. The Austrian Empire collapsed and the Germans withdrew from Russian Poland. They also released Pilsudski from the Magdeburg fortress and sent him to Warsaw (Warszawa) in a sealed train, in the hope that he would be able to set up a pro-German Poland. On 11 November 1918 he was appointed Commander-in-Chief of Polish forces by the Regency Council and given the task of creating an independent National Government.
Polish Forces in the First World War
Traditionally, dating from the Napoleonic era, the Polish Army had a close link with the French. In 1915 Polish units were formed as part of the French Foreign Legion. These were expanded under the command of General Haller by recruiting Polish prisoners of war who had been serving in the Austrian and German armies. To these were added another 25,000 Polish-American volunteers who were at first trained in Canada, as the USA remained neutral until April 1917.
The Russian Government had also created a Polish Legion (the Pulawy Legion), but it was disbanded due to fears of growing Polish nationalism. In 1917, however, the more liberal Kerensky Government allowed the formation of the 1st Polish Eastern Corps, which was then transferred to the front in Byelorussia. When the Germans advanced into this area, Polish units were disbanded and sent back to German-occupied Poland, where they formed an important reservoir of manpower for the future Polish state.
The Austrian Polish Legion was smaller but had according to the military historians Zaloga and Madej a 'disproportionate influence on the later Polish Government'. Two brigades were formed under the command of Józef Pilsudski, the nucleus of which were the paramilitary sporting and rifle clubs, which had already existed before the war in Austrian Poland. They were disbanded when they refused to swear an oath of allegiance to the new Austro-German dominated Kingdom of Poland, and replaced by the German-controlled Royal Polish Army, which was contemptuously nicknamed die Polnische Wehrmacht.
The Polish state re-emerged, but its borders were as yet unfixed. Pilsudski, however, was not prepared to wait for the interminable delays of a peace conference, and, as early as November 1918, Polish militia units invaded and occupied eastern Galicia, on the grounds that it was militarily important to secure the frontier with Romania in case of a joint German-Bolshevik attack on the new Poland.
Neither did the Poles in the German provinces of Posen (Pozna?) and Upper Silesia passively await the decisions of the Peace Conference. In Posen, on Boxing Day, Polish Nationalists launched a revolt against the German authorities that escalated into a bitter guerrilla war. In the south there were also disputes with Czechoslovakia regarding Teschen, formerly part of the Austrian Empire. The Poles took the initiative and sent in troops, who clashed with an advancing Czech force. Further confrontation was prevented by the dispatch of an inter-Allied commission to report to Paris on the situation, and a year later the Poles grudgingly agreed to Teschen's partition.
The Treaty of Versailles did not lead immediately to the fixing of Poland's frontiers. On the one hand the outline of the new state was clear. It comprised former Russian or Congress Poland with Warsaw as its capital; in the west, the German province of Posen was awarded to Poland; in the north, access to the Baltic was achieved by driving a corridor through German territory; while in the south, most of Austrian Galicia was added. On the other hand, the eastern frontier with Ukraine was still undeliniated, and, largely as a result of British pressure, plebiscites were to be held in Upper Silesia and Marienwerder and Allenstein (Olsztyn) in the Polish Corridor.
In Upper Silesia, where there was a concentration of coal mines and iron and steel industries second only to the Ruhr, the Poles, with French support, attempted to seize the initiative and preempt the plebiscites. In turn, German Freikorps volunteers poured in to defend the province, and in May 1921, before Allied troops managed to restore a semblance of order, won an epic victory by storming the ancient convent of St Anna, which commanded the hills along the right bank of the Oder. The storming of the Annaberg was regularly celebrated by the Nazis of Hitler's Third Reich.
Although some 60 per cent of the population voted to remain German, under French pressure, the League of Nations ruled in favour of Polish claims in October 1921. The fighting in Upper Silesia left a lasting legacy of bitterness between Germans and Poles that was to erupt with ferocity in September 1939 and lead to a series of atrocities on both sides.
Poland's eastern frontiers with the USSR were the result of war and were forged independently of the Allied powers in Paris. Pilsudski rejected Britain's attempt to limit Poland's expansion eastwards, and instead sought security from the USSR by annexing Byelorussia and the Ukraine. Polish forces penetrated as far as Kiev by May 1920, but then, with the defeat of the anti-revolutionary White forces in Russia, the Red Army was able not only to expel the Poles from Ukraine but also to advance deep into Poland. By August 1920 Warsaw was threatened by five Soviet armies. Once again it seemed that Poland was on the brink of partition. Leon Trotsky, Commander of the Red Army, proposed carving up Poland with Germany, in what would have been an early version of the Ribbentrop-Molotov pact of August 1939 (see pp. 58–9), but, however attractive this proposal might have been, the presence of French occupying troops in the Rhineland ensured that Germany remained neutral.
Unexpectedly, the threat to Poland's existence was removed by a daring counter-offensive launched by Pilsudski, which destroyed three of the five Soviet armies just outside Warsaw. The fourth had to seek safety by withdrawing into East Prussia, while the fifth suffered immense losses a few weeks later at the Battle of Komarów, near Zamosc. Polish victory was finally secured at the Battle of the River Niemen in September 1920, and her frontiers with the USSR were formalized by the subsequent Treaty of Riga, by which Poland annexed considerable areas of Byelorussia and Ukraine.
The defeat of the Bolsheviks also enabled the Poles to seize Wilno from the Lithuanians in October 1920 and defy pressure from the League of Nations to return it. All in all, the victory did much to boost Polish morale. It avenged the brutal Russian suppression of the revolts of 1830–31 and 1863–64 and gave Poland the crucial self-confidence to grapple with the daunting domestic problems that faced her. Strategically, the Soviet defeat stopped the forces of revolutionary Bolshevism and gave Poland security on her eastern frontier until September 1939. It also strengthened the Versailles settlement, of which Poland was a major prop.
Enemies of the New Polish State
But victory came at a price. The resurrection of Poland was a consequence of the simultaneous defeat of Russia, Germany and Austria. The Austrian empire was shattered beyond repair, but Russia, which historically regarded eastern and central Poland as part of its sphere of interest, was deeply embittered by its defeat in 1920, and had every intention of seizing back the territories lost to Poland at the first opportunity. In short, in the words of Léon Noël, the French Ambassador to Poland in 1939, the acquisition of these territories, which were inhabited by only a minority of Poles, was, in many ways, a 'running sore' to Russia. Tension remained high along the borderlands, and bands of Ukrainians frequently crossed the frontier to attack isolated Polish farms. In 1924 the Border Patrol Corps (KOP) was established by the Polish Government in an attempt to control the situation.
Germany, too, was determined to regain not just Danzig (Gdansk) and the Corridor, but also the industrially valuable area of Upper Silesia and the agricultural regions of Pomerania, which she had lost to Poland. To do this she was ready to cooperate with the USSR and agree to a new partition, whenever the opportunity might arrive. In 1922 General Hans von Seeckt, the Commander-in-Chief of the German Army encapsulated this view in a frank comment:
Poland's existence is intolerable, at variance with the survival of Germany. It must disappear, and it will disappear through its own internal weakness and through Russia – with our assistance. For Russia, Poland is even more intolerable than for us; no Russian can allow Poland to exist [...] the creation of the broad common frontier between Russia and Germany is the precondition for the regaining of strength of both countries.
Throughout the 1920s Germany exploited every opportunity to weaken Poland. In 1922 it signed the Treaty of Rapallo with the USSR, which prepared the way for German-Soviet military cooperation. In 1925 Foreign Minister, Gustav Stresemann specifically excluded Germany's eastern frontiers from the Locarno treaties that guaranteed Germany's western borders, and viewed cooperation between Germany and Russia as a precondition for territorial revision in the east.
The mere existence of Poland was a challenge to Russia and Germany, but Poland had also alienated both Czechoslovakia and Lithuania, which were potentially allies. Ultimately, in the 1920s, Poland's only effective ally was France. In 1921 both states signed a defensive alliance. Britain was more interested in reestablishing a balance of power on the Continent. To do this she needed to restrain France and build up German economic power. Consequently, the Germans attempted to use Britain to put pressure on Poland to agree to frontier adjustments – perhaps even the return of Danzig – in the interests of general peace. To bring that about both German politicians and diplomats were agreed that 'an understanding with Poland is neither possible nor desired. The tension with Poland must be maintained if only for the reason that the world will not lose interest in a revision of the German Polish frontiers'.
When Hitler came to power in 1933, Pilsudski initially proposed joint Franco-Polish intervention to remove him, but such action was rejected by the French. For his part, Hitler – far from intensifying the pressure on Poland – initially needed time to consolidate his grip on Germany and to build up the German war machine: he was therefore ready to defuse the tension with Poland and negotiate a non-aggression treaty with Warsaw. He told representatives of the Nazi Party in June 1933 that Germany's aims could not be realized in 'a few days or weeks' and that it was consequently vital to 'avoid anything that might give the world cause for suspicion'. Pilsudski, disillusioned with the French, was ready to try to improve relations with the Germans, and on 26 January 1934 the Polish-German Non-aggression Pact was signed in Berlin. For a period of ten years it pledged both countries to seek to reach a direct understanding on matters of dispute and not to 'proceed to use force in order to settle such disputes'. Nevertheless, to Hermann Rauschning, President of the Danzig Senate, Hitler described the agreement as having 'a purely temporary significance'. He added: 'I have no intention of maintaining a serious friendship.'
Development of Poland 1919–38
Polish arms had extended and consolidated the new state, but its domestic problems remained daunting. The new Poland was an amalgamation of three different zones, each with their own legal and administrative structures as well as their separate currencies. It was also far from a homogenous state: some 30 per cent of its population was Ukrainian, Byelorussian, German or Jewish, most of whom were reluctant citizens of the new state.
Economically, Poland also faced enormous problems. It had been fought over during the war and in its immediate aftermath. Millions of farms and cottages had to be rebuilt. Agriculture was backward and based predominantly on small peasant holdings, the transport infrastructure was poor and industry limited to a few enclaves such as Upper Silesia, Lódz and the industrial region around Warsaw. Poland was not in a position to survive a war against an economically stronger power. It also lacked a modern fiscal system with a central bank and an effective means of tax collection. As historian Peter Stachura observed, 'the overall economic position of the country could not have been more unpropitious, or the challenge of reconstruction more demanding'.
Political stability was also lacking. Few Poles had any parliamentary experience, while the electorate was politically inexperienced and fragmented. In 1922, when the first national elections were held, there were ninety-two different parties, seventeen of which won seats in the Sejm (Parliament). Inevitably, this led to a series of short-lived coalition governments – between 1918 and 1926 there were fourteen of them. It was no wonder that many observers in both Germany and the West wrote Poland off. In Britain, for instance, the great economist, J.M. Keynes, observed that Poland was 'an economic impossibility whose only industry is Jew baiting', while Lloyd George, the British Prime Minister from 1916–1922, had no doubts that the fledgling state was an 'historic failure'. Yet, against all expectations, the Polish Second Republic managed to survive until Nazi-Soviet military force destroyed it in September 1939.
(Continues…)
Excerpted from "Poland Betrayed"
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Copyright © 2009 David G. Williamson.
Excerpted by permission of Pen and Sword Books Ltd.
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Table of Contents
Maps and Illustrations,
Acknowledgements,
Background,
Poland: The Crucified Nation,
Emergence of the New Poland 1918–20,
Enemies of the New Polish State,
Development of Poland 1919–38,
The Re-Emergence of Germany and Russia as Major Military Powers,
Germany Rearms,
Development of Soviet Armed Forces,
Rebirth of Poland's Armed Forces 1919–39,
Air Defence,
The Navy,
Industrial Mobilization,
Poland's Triumph: Breaking the Nazi Codes,
From the Anschluss to the Seizure of Teschen,
Poland, Danzig and the British Guarantee,
The German Response,
Too Little and Too Late,
Polish Civil Defence Preparations 1938–39,
Plans 'W' and 'Z',
Polish Air and Naval Plans,
Fall Weiss,
Countdown to War,
The Nazi-Soviet Pact,
War Postponed for a Week,
Campaign Chronicle,
Preliminary Incidents,
31 August 1939: The Wehrmacht's Orders,
1–17 September: Fighting in Danzig, Westerplatte and the Coastal Regions,
1–6 September: Rout of the Polish Air Force,
1–7 September: The Land War,
Elimination of the Corridor,
Massacres and Reprisals in Bydgoszcz,
The German Advance from East Prussia,
All Quiet in the Poznan Salient,
The German Breakthrough in the South-west,
Britain and France Declare War,
8–17 September: Battle of the Bzura,
10–20 September: The Situation Elsewhere,
7–27 September: The Siege of Warsaw,
17 September: The Soviets Intervene,
17–30 September: The Russo-Polish War,
The Soviet Occupation of Lwów,
21–28 September: Germany and Russia Decide Poland's Fate,
22 September–6 October: Mopping Up,
19 September–2 October: Modlin and the Hel Peninsula,
17–30 September: Exodus of the Fortunate Few,
31 August–14 October: The Polish Navy Escapes to Britain,
September–December 1939: Escape from Internment,
October 1939–May 1940: The Poles Fight On,
Aftermath,
The German Zones,
The Russian Zone,
Prisoners of War,
Katy?,
Resistance,
Assessment,
Appendices,
Appendix I: Chronology of Major Events,
Appendix II: Biographies of Key Figures,
Appendix III: Glossary and Abbreviations,
Appendix IV: Orders of Battle,
Appendix V: Survivors' Reminiscences,
Sources,
Index,