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Seven Demon Stories from Medieval Japan
By Noriko T. Reider University Press of Colorado
Copyright © 2016 University Press of Colorado
All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-1-60732-490-4
CHAPTER 1
Drunken Demon (Shuten Doji: Oeyama ekotoba)
Imagining the Demon Conquerors
Shuten Doji (Drunken Demon) is Japan's most renowned oni legend. The chief of the oni, Shuten Doji, is a fantastic, demonic, and cannibalistic but charismatic creature. He and his cohorts kidnap, enslave, and cannibalize men and women. Set against this imaginary character are the historical figures. According to the oldest extant text of the legend, the picture scrolls Oeyama ekotoba (Illustrations and Writing of Mt. Oe, ca. fourteenth century), whose translation follows this essay, two generals, Minamoto no Raiko (in the Sino-Japanese reading of the characters, or Yorimitsu 948–1021) and Fujiwara no Hosho (or Yasumasa 958–1036), are charged by imperial command to rescue the captives of Shuten Doji and eliminate him. Among a number of samurai who physically fight against oni, Raiko and his four lieutenants, called shitenno (Four Guardian Kings), are probably the most famous, since Hosho's legendary status diminishes as time passes. While they are widely recognized as the brave warriors battling with the supernatural in legends, their historical records are minimal. This chapter examines who these samurai were and why they were chosen as the conquerors of oni. It also discusses some extra-literary events and the circumstances surrounding Shuten Doji's statement that demons' power thrives when the king is wise.
Shuten Doji Texts
Although we know of the Shuten Doji story through written texts, the evidence suggests that the story derives from a much older oral tradition. As is the case with popular stories with an oral origin, the story of Shuten Doji has an array of textual versions. It is generally accepted that there are two versions of the Shuten Doji texts: the Oeyama (Mt. Oe) version and that of Ibukiyama (Mt. Ibuki). The picture scrolls of Oeyama ekotoba constitute the representative text of the Oeyama version. Another picture scroll titled Shuten Doji emaki (Picture Scrolls of Shuten Doji, early sixteen century), owned by the Suntory Museum of Art in Tokyo (hereafter the Suntory version), represents the Ibukiyama version. The major differences between them are twofold: one is the location of the oni's fortress. In the Oeyama version, the fortress is located on Mt. Oe, whereas the Ibukiyama version situates the oni's den at Mt. Ibuki. The second difference is that the Ibukiyama version includes a section of explanation of Shuten Doji's honji (true nature or original form). Thus, in the Ibukiyama version we are told that Shuten Doji is dairokuten no mao (the evil king of the Sixth Heaven in darkness) and the archenemy of Buddha. Likewise, the text tells us that Raiko's honji is Bishamonten (Vaisravana), Emperor Ichijo's honji is Miroku (Maitreya), and Abe no Seimei is Kannon-satta (Kannon Bodhisattva) ("Shuten Doji-e jo, chu, ge" 176 [1904]: supplement 27). The Oeyama version does not contain this honji section except for the Oeyama ekotoba. Satake Akihiro assumes that the honji section of the Oeyama versions may have been eliminated as exposure to the audience became more frequent (Shuten Doji ibun 152). It is now generally accepted that the Oeyama version came first. The Ibukiyama version was formed by incorporating a historical incident, the murder of a bandit named Kashiwabara Yasaburo at Mt. Ibuki in 1201, into the Oeyama version (Satake, Shuten Doji ibun 119).
Recently, Minobe Shigekatsu claimed that differentiating the texts as Mt. Oe versus Mt. Ibuki is not fruitful because many Shuten Doji texts can be taken as both versions. He suggests instead to classify the texts as those hued with the Tendai school of Buddhism vis-à-vis those without the Tendai color. For example, in the picture scrolls of Oeyama ekotoba, Saicho (or Dengyo Daishi, d. 822), the founder of the Tendai sect of Buddhism who built Enryakuji on Mt. Hiei, expelled Shuten Doji from his original abode, whereas in the Suntory version Saicho is replaced by Kukai (or Kobo Daishi 774–835), the founder of the Shingon sect of Buddhism. Also, the deity of Hiyoshi Sanno Shrine who protects the Buddhist law of Enryakuji is missing in the Suntory version (Minobe and Minobe 129–32). The Minobes' classification seems appropriate.
There are a number of copies and versions of the story, but it was the early-eighteenth-century printed version of the Shuten Doji story that reached the broadest audience, thanks to the bookseller Shibukawa Seiemon. For all intents and purposes, the popularity of the Shibukawa edition put an end to further variations (Amano, "Shuten Doji ko" 16). The location of the fortress in the Shibukawa edition is on Mt. Oe, and it does not have the honji section; however, the detail of the story is that of the Ibuki version. Shibukawa published the "Shuten Doji" story in an anthology of twenty-three short stories under the title Goshugen otogi bunko (Auspicious Companion Library).
The Oeyama ekotoba Picture Scrolls
The Oeyama ekotoba is a set of two picture scrolls currently housed in the Itsuo Museum of Art in Osaka that date back to the second half of the fourteenth century. The scrolls are also referred to as Katoribon because the set was formerly in the possession of a high priest of the Katori Shrine in Shimofusa Province.
The scrolls consist of twenty sections of writings and illustrations. The material has been damaged, and several sections of the scroll are missing. Further, a number of writing sections do not match the illustrations; in many cases, the sections are out of order because of an error or miscommunication in making a scroll, that is, in pasting the papers of illustrations and writings onto the scroll. The opening section of the first scroll is largely missing. Fortunately, this missing part can be supplemented by the Shuten Doji monogatari ekotoba (Picture scroll of the Shuten Doji story) housed in the Yomei bunko (Yomei Library, hereafter the text is referred to as Yomei bunko-bon [Yomei library edition]).
The second scroll ends with the sixteenth illustration. The narrative after this spot, however, can also be supplemented by a different scroll that consists of four sections over nine pieces of paper. These sections, which are written text only, were perhaps copied in the mid-Muromachi period (MJMT 3: 122).
Regarding the calligrapher of the writing, some attribute it to Urabe Kenko (or Yoshida Kenko, 1283–1350), Keiun (?), or Nijo Tameyo (1250–1338), but there is no proof to back up this assertion. The painter is not known (Sakakibara, "Oeyama ekotoba shokai" 156).
Plot Summary of Oeyama ekotoba
During the reign of Emperor Ichijo (986–1011), people begin to disappear mysteriously in and around Kyoto, the Heian capital of Japan. Abe no Seimei (921?–1005), a yin-yang master of the Heian Court, divines that it is the work of Shuten Doji, the chieftain of the oni; Shuten Doji and his cohorts abduct and devour people. The imperial court charges the two generals, Minamoto no Raiko (or Yorimitsu) and Fujiwara no Hosho (or Yasumasa), to destroy Shuten Doji and his evil minions.
Before Raiko and Hosho set out on their quest with several loyal retainers, the troupe prays for success at four separate shrines. Their faith is rewarded, for while on their way to the oni's lair on Mt. Oe, the group encounters four deities disguised as priests. The old priests advise Raiko's party to disguise themselves as yamabushi (mountain priests), providing the men with the necessary clothing. The warriors, now joined by the deity-priests, meet an old woman washing bloody clothes at a river on Mt. Oe. She tells the heroes about the activities of Shuten Doji and his band of oni. Arriving at the demon's mountaintop palace, the members of the royal troupe tell the oni guard that they are a band of lost yamabushi in need of lodging for the night. Shuten Doji allows them into his palace and jovially regales the men with stories from his past.
After Shuten Doji retires, a number of oni disguised as beautiful women visit Raiko and Hosho in their quarters. Raiko gives the oni-women an intense glare, and the demons scurry off. Soon after, another group of oni disguised as a dengaku (field music) troupe emerges to entertain Raiko and his band. Again, Raiko's fierce stare wards the oni off. Raiko and Hosho then scout out the palace compound. They discover a cage holding a kidnapped page of the Tendai sect's head priest and in another cage, Chinese captives. Raiko's and Hosho's troupe then moves to Shuten Doji's grand bedchamber. They find the entrance to his quarters blocked by an impenetrable iron door, but with the help of the deity-priests, the once impervious door magically melts away. Inside, Shuten Doji in his true monstrous form lies in drunken repose. While the four deity-priests hold each of Shuten Doji's limbs, the warriors behead him. As Shuten Doji's head hurls through the air, his mouth tries to bite Raiko. Raiko quickly borrows Tsuna's and Kintoki's helmets, putting them over his own, and is thus saved from Shuten Doji's final attack. Raiko's band then kills the rest of the oni and frees the surviving captives. Before parting with the warriors at Mt. Oe, the four deities reveal their true identities and also show the heroes their own honji (true nature or original form).
After the troupe returns to the capital, Shuten Doji's head is placed, by imperial command, in the Uji no hozo (Treasure house of Uji). Both Raiko and Hosho are generously rewarded for their heroic deeds.
Demon Conquerors
The evil supernatural Shuten Doji character is eliminated by the legendary historical figures Minamoto no Raiko, Fujiwara no Hosho, Raiko's shitenno, and Hosho's retainer. In a sense, they are legendary because they are known as courageous warriors mostly in legends — this is especially true of Raiko and Tsuna, Raiko's right-hand man and the first of Raiko's shitenno. They play an active role in the world of setsuwa (tale literature or narrative; myths, legends, anecdotes, and the like), but historical records of them are sparse. An entertaining story is a great way of advertising or disseminating one's name or creating fame. In the process of story formation, extolling Raiko — an ancestor of the Minamoto clan — was a major issue for his descendants, and Tsuna was an important character to advance (or recover) the fame of his line of the Watanabe clan. In contrast, Hosho, who produced few descendants, saw his status decline in the story as time passed.
Minamoto no Raiko (or Yorimitsu)
Minamoto no Raiko (948–1021) was the eldest son of Minamoto no Mitsunaka (or Manju in the Sino-Japanese reading of the characters, 912?–97), one of the first chieftains of the Seiwa Genji line of gunji kizoku, or warrior-aristocrats. Mitsunaka accumulated wealth and influence by tying his fortunes to those of the Fujiwara Regency — the Fujiwara family's northern line monopolized the position of regent during the Heian period (794–1185). According to Motoki Yasuo, Mitsunaka's greatest achievement was his role as an informer in the Anna Incident in 969 that politically ruined Minamoto no Takaakira (914–83); Mitsunaka thus played a role in helping establish the Fujiwara Regency under which he laid the foundation for his descendants to flourish. Likewise, Oboroya Hisashi writes that Mitsunaka's significance lies in his moving to Tada in Settsu Province (the present-day eastern part of Hyogo prefecture and the northern part of Osaka prefecture), developing his manor there, and forming an estate with his dependents; thus he laid the foundations for his descendants to flourish (Oboroya 66). Since Mitsunaka had his base in Tada, he is also known as Tada no Manju. Raiko is said to have entered Tada, succeeding Mitsunaka.
RAIKO: A WARRIOR-ARISTOCRAT
Raiko first appears in the historical documents in the entry on the sixteenth day of the ninth month of 988 in Nihon kiryaku (Short History of Japan, ca. from the late eleventh century to the early twelfth century). Fujiwara no Kaneie (929–90) had a banquet for his newly built mansion on Second Avenue, and Raiko presented him with thirty horses (Kuroita, Nihon kiryaku 2: 165). Raiko was forty years old.
According to Sonpi bunmyaku (Genealogy of Noble and Humble), the massive genealogical compendium compiled by Toin Kinsada (1340–99), a high-ranking court noble, Raiko became the governor of Settsu, Iyo, Mino, Owari, Bizen, Tajima, Sanuki, Hoki, and Awaji Provinces (Toin 3: 107). Often, he did not go to the place of an appointment but stayed in the capital, sending someone else to work on his behalf while he received the tax revenue in the capital. Raiko was also appointed a member of the imperial palace guards, Military Guards, and the Household of Crown Prince, and he was a provisional captain of the Imperial Stables of the Left. In 1011, at age sixty-four, Raiko became senior fourth rank, lower grade, his final official rank. Importantly, while holding government positions, Raiko served the household of the Fujiwara Regent family. It was the time when the Fujiwara Regency was at its height, and the Fujiwara held the power of appointments and dismissals of the governorships. Ayusawa Hisashi, Raiko's biographer, writes that by serving the Fujiwara Regent family and having close connections with them, that is, currying favor with them, Raiko held the positions of various governorships and accumulated immense wealth — the same method his father, Mitsunaka, used (Ayusawa 22).
Indeed, Raiko served the Fujiwara family well. When Tsuchimikado Mansion, Fujiwara no Michinaga's (966–1027) residence, burned down in 1016 during a great fire in the capital, Raiko went to the capital from Mino Province, the place of his appointment, to express his sympathy after the fire (Oboroya 94–95). Michinaga's mansion was rebuilt with materials sent by various provincial governors and was completed in 1018. Among them, Raiko, at that time the governor of Iyo, was exceptional, as he supplied furnishings for the entire mansion. Eiga monogatari (A Tale of Flowering Fortunes, eleventh century) recounts:
Minamoto Yorimitsu, the governor of Iyo, had provided the interior furnishings for the entire establishment, supplying everything that could possibly be needed by any of the three personages — to say nothing of blinds, mats, jugs, basins, and other furnishings for the ladies' apartments, and equipment for the offices occupied by retainers, chamberlains, and Escorts. In the whole house, there was nothing of which one could think or say, "Thus-and-so is lacking," Everything was so superbly planned that Michinaga, looking about, asked himself how Yorimitsu could possibly have done it all. The curtains, the workmanship of the screens and Chinese chests, even the gold and silver lacquered designs and trims — all showed a truly exceptional taste. Michinaga wondered about how Yorimitsu could have managed it, and the other lords were enthusiastic in their praise. (McCullough, A Tale of Flowering Fortunes 2: 485)
(Continues...)
Excerpted from Seven Demon Stories from Medieval Japan by Noriko T. Reider. Copyright © 2016 University Press of Colorado. Excerpted by permission of University Press of Colorado.
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