Theory and Practice of Aircraft Performance / Edition 1

by Ajoy Kumar Kundu, Mark A. Price, David Riordan, Peter Belobaba, Jonathan Cooper

Overview

Textbook introducing the fundamentals of aircraft performance using industry standards and examples: bridging the gap between academia and industry

• Provides an extensive and detailed treatment of all segments of mission profile and overall aircraft performance
• Considers operating costs, safety, environmental and related systems issues
• Includes worked examples relating to current aircraft (Learjet 45, Tucano Turboprop Trainer, Advanced Jet Trainer and Airbus A320 types of aircraft)
• Suitable as a textbook for aircraft performance courses

Product Details

ISBN-13:	9781119074175
Publisher:	Wiley
Publication date:	09/26/2016
Series:	Aerospace Series
Pages:	704
Product dimensions:	7.00(w) x 9.70(h) x 1.50(d)

About the Author

Ajoy Kumar Kundu graduated with Mechanical Engineering degree from Jadavpur University, India, followed by studying in the United Kingdom (Cranfield University and Queen's University Belfast) and in the United States of America (University of Michigan and Stanford University). His professional experience spans more than thirty years in the aircraft industries and nearly 20 years in academia. In India, he was Professor at the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur; and the Chief Designer at the Hindustan Aeronautics, Bangalore. In North America, he served as Research Engineer for the Boeing Aircraft Company, Renton and as Intermediate Engineer for Canadair Ltd. His aeronautical engineering career began in the United Kingdom with Short Brothers and Harland Ltd., retiring from Bombardier Aerospace-Belfast, as Assistant Chief Aerodynamicist. He is currently associated with Queen's University Belfast. He has authored the book title Aircraft Design published by Cambridge University Press. He held British, Canadian and Indian Private Pilot's License. He is a Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society and the Institute of Mechanical Engineers, UK.

Professor Mark Price is the Pro-Vice-Chancellor for the Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences at Queen’s University Belfast. Formerly he was the Head of School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering having progressed through his academic career as a Professor of Aeronautics teaching aircraft structures and design, and leading a research team in design and manufacturing. He graduated in 1987 with a 1st Class Honours degree in Aeronautical Engineering from Queen's University Belfast before taking up a post as a stress engineer in Bombardier Aerospace. He returned later to QUB to undertake a PhD in Mechanical Engineering after which he joined TranscenData Europe as a software engineer and project manager to implement his research in their product CADFix. In 1998 he returned to QUB lecturing in aircraft structures and design. With a strong focus on design applications and integrated performance and cost models, including manufacturing processing effects in design simulations, he received the 2006 Thomas Hawksley medal from the IMechE. He has published over 200 articles and supervised 20 PhDs to completion.   Mark is a Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society and the Institute of Mechanical Engineers, UK.

David Riordan commenced employment with Short Brothers PLC in 1978 as an Undergraduate Apprentice. He then graduated in 1982 from Queen's University Belfast, with a 1st Class Honours degree in Mechanical Engineering. In 1986 he attained an MSc in Advanced Manufacturing Technology from the Cranfield Institute of Technology, England.
David was appointed Chief Technical Engineer during 2002; in which position provides leadership at the Bombardier Belfast site for all activities associated with the technical engineering fields of aerodynamics, thermodynamics, fire safety and noise; mechanical systems, electrical systems, reliability & safety. David is also functionally responsible for the department of Airworthiness and Engineering Quality.
Responsibilities cover all products associated with Bombardier at Belfast, including metallic fuselage barrels (business jet and regional aircraft applications); composite aerostructures (including the composite wing for the Bombardier CSeries aircraft) and engine nacelles (including the complete nacelle system for the PW1400G-JM propulsion system powering the IRKUT MC-21 aircraft).

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Table of Contents

Preface xix

Series Preface xxi

Road Map of the Book xxiii

Acknowledgements xxvii

Nomenclature xxxi

Introduction 1

1.1 Overview 1

1.2 Brief Historical Background 1

1.2.1 Flight in Mythology 1

1.2.2 Fifteenth to Nineteenth Centuries 1

1.2.3 From 1900 to World War I (1914) 3

1.2.4 World War I (1914–1918) 4

1.2.5 The Inter‐War Period: the Golden Age (1918–1939) 7

1.2.6 World War II (1939–1945) 7

1.2.7 Post World War II 8

1.3 Current Aircraft Design Status 8

1.3.1 Current Civil Aircraft Trends 9

1.3.2 Current Military Aircraft Trends 10

1.4 Future Trends 11

1.4.1 Trends in Civil Aircraft 11

1.4.2 Trends in Military Aircraft 13

1.4.3 Forces and Drivers 14

1.5 Airworthiness Requirements 14

1.6 Current Aircraft Performance Analyses Levels 16

1.7 Market Survey 17

1.8 Typical Design Process 19

1.8.1 Four Phases of Aircraft Design 19

1.9 Classroom Learning Process 23

1.10 Cost Implications 25

1.11 Units and Dimensions 26

1.12 Use of Semi‐empirical Relations and Graphs 26

1.13 How Do Aircraft Fly? 26

1.13.1 Classification of Flight Mechanics 27

1.14 Anatomy of Aircraft 27

1.14.1 Comparison between Civil and Military Design Requirements 30

1.15 Aircraft Motion and Forces 30

1.15.1 Motion – Kinematics 31

1.15.2 Forces – Kinetics 33

1.15.3 Aerodynamic Parameters – Lift, Drag and Pitching Moment 34

1.15.4 Basic Controls – Sign Convention 34

References 36

2 Aerodynamic and Aircraft Design Considerations 37

2.1 Overview 37

2.2 Introduction 37

2.3 Atmosphere 39

2.3.1 Hydrostatic Equations and Standard Atmosphere 39

2.3.2 Non‐standard/Off‐standard Atmosphere 47

2.3.3 Altitude Definitions – Density Altitude (Off‐standard) 48

2.3.4 Humidity Effects 50

2.3.5 Greenhouse Gases Effect 50

2.4 Airflow Behaviour: Laminar and Turbulent 51

2.4.1 Flow Past an Aerofoil 55

2.5 Aerofoil 56

2.5.1 Subsonic Aerofoil 57

2.5.2 Supersonic Aerofoil 64

2.6 Generation of Lift 64

2.6.1 Centre of Pressure and Aerodynamic Centre 66

2.6.2 Relation between Centre of Pressure and Aerodynamic Centre 68

2.7 Types of Stall 71

2.7.1 Buffet 71

2.8 Comparison of Three NACA Aerofoils 72

2.9 High‐Lift Devices 73

2.10 Transonic Effects – Area Rule 74

2.10.1 Compressibility Correction 75

2.11 Wing Aerodynamics 76

2.11.1 Induced Drag and Total Aircraft Drag 79

2.12 Aspect Ratio Correction of 2D‐Aerofoil Characteristics for 3D‐Finite Wing 79

2.13 Wing Definitions 81

2.13.1 Planform Area, S W 81

2.13.2 Wing Aspect Ratio 82

2.13.3 Wing‐Sweep Angle 82

2.13.4 Wing Root (c root) and Tip (c tip) Chords 82

2.13.5 Wing‐Taper Ratio, λ 82

2.13.6 Wing Twist 82

2.13.7 High/Low Wing 83

2.13.8 Dihedral/Anhedral Angles 83

2.14 Mean Aerodynamic Chord 84

2.15 Compressibility Effect: Wing Sweep 86

2.16 Wing‐Stall Pattern and Wing Twist 87

2.17 Influence of Wing Area and Span on Aerodynamics 88

2.17.1 The Square‐Cube Law 88

2.17.2 Aircraft Wetted Area (A W) versus Wing Planform Area (S W)89 2.17.3 Additional Wing Surface Vortex Lift – Strake/Canard 90

2.17.4 Additional Surfaces on Wing – Flaps/Slats and High‐Lift Devices 91

2.17.5 Other Additional Surfaces on Wing 91

2.18 Empennage 92

2.18.1 Tail‐arm 95

2.18.2 Horizontal Tail (H‐Tail) 95

2.18.3 Vertical Tail (V‐Tail) 96

2.18.4 Tail‐Volume Coefficients 96

2.19 Fuselage 98

2.19.1 Fuselage Axis/Zero‐Reference Plane 98

2.19.2 Fuselage Length, L fus 98

2.19.3 Fineness Ratio, FR 99

2.19.4 Fuselage Upsweep Angle 99

2.19.5 Fuselage Closure Angle 99

2.19.6 Front Fuselage Closure Length, L f 99

2.19.7 Aft Fuselage Closure Length, L a 99

2.19.8 Mid‐Fuselage Constant Cross‐Section length, l m 99

2.19.9 Fuselage Height, H 99

2.19.10 Fuselage Width, W 100

2.19.11 Average Diameter, D ave 100

2.20 Nacelle and Intake 100

2.20.1 Large Commercial/Military Logistic and Old Bombers Nacelle Group 101

2.20.2 Small Civil Aircraft Nacelle Position 103

2.20.3 Intake/Nacelle Group (Military Aircraft) 104

2.20.4 Futuristic Aircraft Nacelle Positions 106

2.21 Speed Brakes and Dive Brakes 106

References 106

3 Air Data Measuring Instruments, Systems and Parameters 109

3.1 Overview 109

3.2 Introduction 109

3.3 Aircraft Speed 110

3.3.1 Definitions Related to Aircraft Velocity 111

3.3.2 Theory Related to Computing Aircraft Velocity 112

3.3.3 Aircraft Speed in Flight Deck Instruments 116

3.3.4 Atmosphere with Wind Speed (Non‐zero Wind) 117

3.3.5 Calibrated Airspeed 118

3.3.6 Compressibility Correction (∆V c) 120

3.3.7 Other Position Error Corrections 122

3.4 Air Data Instruments 122

3.4.1 Altitude Measurement – Altimeter 123

3.4.2 Airspeed Measuring Instrument – Pitot‐Static Tube 125

3.4.3 Angle‐of‐Attack Probe 126

3.4.4 Vertical Speed Indicator 126

3.4.5 Temperature Measurement 127

3.4.6 Turn‐Slip Indicator 127

3.5 Aircraft Flight‐Deck (Cockpit) Layout 128

3.5.1 Multifunctional Displays and Electronic Flight Information Systems 129

3.5.2 Combat Aircraft Flight Deck 131

3.5.3 Head‐Up Display (HUD) 132

3.6 Aircraft Mass (Weights) and Centre of Gravity 133

3.6.1 Aircraft Mass (Weights) Breakdown 133

3.6.2 Desirable CG Position 134

3.6.3 Weights Summary – Civil Aircraft 136

3.6.4 CG Determination – Civil Aircraft 137

3.6.5 Bizjet Aircraft CG Location – Classroom Example 138

3.6.6 Weights Summary – Military Aircraft 138

3.6.7 CG Determination – Military Aircraft 138

3.6.8 Classroom Worked Example – Military AJT CG Location 138

3.7 Noise Emissions 141

3.7.1 Airworthiness Requirements 142

3.7.2 Summary 145

3.8 Engine‐Exhaust Emissions 145

3.9 Aircraft Systems 146

3.9.1 Aircraft Control System 146

3.9.2 ECS: Cabin Pressurization and Air‐Conditioning 148

3.9.3 Oxygen Supply 149

3.9.4 Anti‐icing, De‐icing, Defogging and Rain Removal System 149

3.10 Low Observable (LO) Aircraft Configuration 150

3.10.1 Heat Signature 150

3.10.2 Radar Signature 150

References 152

4 Equations of Motion for a Flat Stationary Earth 153

4.1 Overview 153

4.2 Introduction 154

4.3 Definitions of Frames of Reference (Flat Stationary E arth) and Nomenclature Used 154

4.3.1 Notation and Symbols Used in this Chapter 157

4.4 Eulerian Angles 158

4.4.1 Transformation of Eulerian Angles 159

4.5 Simplified Equations of Motion for a Flat Stationary Earth 161

4.5.1 Important Aerodynamic Angles 161

4.5.2 In Pitch Plane (Vertical XZ Plane) 162

4.5.3 In Yaw Plane (Horizontal Plane) – Coordinated Turn 164

4.5.4 In Pitch‐Yaw Plane – Coordinated Climb‐Turn (Helical Trajectory) 165

4.5.5 Discussion on Turn 166

Reference 167

5 Aircraft Load 169

5.1 Overview 169

5.2 Introduction 169

5.2.1 Buffet 170

5.2.2 Flutter 170

5.3 Flight Manoeuvres 171

5.3.1 Pitch Plane (X‐Z) Manoeuvre 171

5.3.2 Roll Plane (Y‐Z) Manoeuvre 171

5.3.3 Yaw Plane (Y‐X) Manoeuvre 171

5.4 Aircraft Loads 171

5.5 Theory and Definitions 172

5.5.1 Load Factor, n 172

5.6 Limits – Loads and Speeds 173

5.6.1 Maximum Limit of Load Factor 174

5.7 V‐n Diagram174 5.7.1 Speed Limits 175

5.7.2 Extreme Points of the V‐n Diagram 175

5.7.3 Low Speed Limit 177

5.7.4 Manoeuvre Envelope Construction 178

5.7.5 High Speed Limit 179

5.8 Gust Envelope 179

5.8.1 Gust Load Equations 180

5.8.2 Gust Envelope Construction 182

Reference 183

6 Stability Considerations Affecting Aircraft Performance 185

6.1 Overview 185

6.2 Introduction 185

6.3 Static and Dynamic Stability 186

6.3.1 Longitudinal Stability – Pitch Plane (Pitch Moment, M)188

6.3.2 Directional Stability – Yaw Plane (Yaw Moment, N)188

6.3.3 Lateral Stability – Roll Plane (Roll Moment, L)189 6.4 Theory 192

6.4.1 Pitch Plane 192

6.4.2 Yaw Plane 195

6.4.3 Roll Plane 196

6.5 Current Statistical Trends for Horizontal and Vertical Tail Coefficients197 6.6 Inherent Aircraft Motions as Characteristics of Design 198

6.6.1 Short‐Period Oscillation and Phugoid Motion 198

6.6.2 Directional/Lateral Modes of Motion 200

6.7 Spinning 202

6.8 Summary of Design Considerations for Stability 203

6.8.1 Civil Aircraft 203

6.8.2 Military Aircraft – Non‐linear Effects 204

6.8.3 Active Control Technology (ACT) – Fly‐by‐Wire 205

References 207

7 Aircraft Power Plant and Integration 209

7.1 Overview 209

7.2 Background 209

7.3 Definitions 214

7.4 Air‐Breathing Aircraft Engine Types 215

7.4.1 Simple Straight‐through Turbojets 215

7.4.2 Turbofan – Bypass Engine 216

7.4.3 Afterburner Jet Engines 216

7.4.4 Turboprop Engines 218

7.4.5 Piston Engines 218

7.5 Simplified Representation of Gas Turbine (Brayton/Joule) Cycle 219

7.6 Formulation/Theory – Isentropic Case 221

7.6.1 Simple Straight‐through Turbojets 221

7.6.2 Bypass Turbofan Engines 222

7.6.3 Afterburner Jet Engines 224

7.6.4 Turboprop Engines 226

7.7 Engine Integration to Aircraft – Installation Effects 226

7.7.1 Subsonic Civil Aircraft Nacelle and Engine Installation 227

7.7.2 Turboprop Integration to Aircraft 229

7.7.3 Combat Aircraft Engine Installation 230

7.8 Intake/Nozzle Design 231

7.8.1 Civil Aircraft Intake Design 231

7.8.2 Military Aircraft Intake Design 232

7.9 Exhaust Nozzle and Thrust Reverser 233

7.9.1 Civil Aircraft Exhaust Nozzles 233

7.9.2 Military Aircraft TR Application and Exhaust Nozzles 233

7.10 Propeller 234

7.10.1 Propeller‐Related Definitions 236

7.10.2 Propeller Theory 237

7.10.3 Propeller Performance – Practical Engineering Applications 243

7.10.4 Propeller Performance – Three‐ to Four‐Bladed 246

References 246

8 Aircraft Power Plant Performance 247

8.1 Overview 247

8.2 Introduction 248

8.2.1 Engine Performance Ratings 248

8.2.2 Turbofan Engine Parameters 249

8.3 Uninstalled Turbofan Engine Performance Data – Civil Aircraft 250

8.3.1 Turbofans with BPR around 4 252

8.3.2 Turbofans with BPR around 5–6 252

8.4 Uninstalled Turbofan Engine Performance Data – Military Aircraft 254

8.5 Uninstalled Turboprop Engine Performance Data 255

8.5.1 Typical Turboprop Performance 257

8.6 Installed Engine Performance Data of Matched Engines to Coursework Aircraft 257

8.6.1 Turbofan Engine (Smaller Engines for Bizjets – BPR ≈ 4)257 8.6.2 Turbofans with BPR around 5–6 (Larger Jets) 260

8.6.3 Military Turbofan (Very Low BPR)260 8.7 Installed Turboprop Performance Data 261

8.7.1 Typical Turboprop Performance 261

8.7.2 Propeller Performance – Worked Example 262

8.8 Piston Engine 264

8.9 Engine Performance Grid 267

8.9.1 Installed Maximum Climb Rating (TFE 731‐20 Class Turbofan) 269

8.9.2 Maximum Cruise Rating (TFE731‐20 Class Turbofan) 270

8.10 Some Turbofan Data 272

Reference 273

9 Aircraft Drag 275

9.1 Overview 275

9.2 Introduction 275

9.3 Parasite Drag Definition 277

9.4 Aircraft Drag Breakdown (Subsonic) 278

9.5 Aircraft Drag Formulation 279

9.6 Aircraft Drag Estimation Methodology 281

9.7 Minimum Parasite Drag Estimation Methodology 281

9.7.1 Geometric Parameters, Reynolds Number and Basic C F Determination 282

9.7.2 Computation of Wetted Area 283

9.7.3 Stepwise Approach to Computing Minimum Parasite Drag 283

9.8 Semi‐Empirical Relations to Estimate Aircraft Component Parasite Drag 284

9.8.1 Fuselage 284

9.8.2 Wing, Empennage, Pylons and Winglets 287

9.8.3 Nacelle Drag 289

9.8.4 Excrescence Drag 293

9.8.5 Miscellaneous Parasite Drags 294

9.9 Notes on Excrescence Drag Resulting from Surface Imperfections 295

9.10 Minimum Parasite Drag 296

9.11 ΔCDp Estimation 296

9.12 Subsonic Wave Drag 296

9.13 Total Aircraft Drag 298

9.14 Low‐Speed Aircraft Drag at Takeoff and Landing 298

9.14.1 High‐Lift Device Drag 298

9.14.2 Dive Brakes and Spoilers Drag 302

9.14.3 Undercarriage Drag 302

9.14.4 One‐Engine Inoperative Drag 303

9.15 Propeller‐Driven Aircraft Drag 304

9.16 Military Aircraft Drag 304

9.17 Supersonic Drag 305

9.18 Coursework Example – Civil Bizjet Aircraft 306

9.18.1 Geometric and Performance Data 306

9.18.2 Computation of Wetted Areas, Re and Basic C F 309

9.18.3 Computation of 3D and Other Effects 310

9.18.4 Summary of Parasite Drag 314

9.18.5 ΔC Dp

Estimation 314

9.18.6 Induced Drag 314

9.18.7 Total Aircraft Drag at LRC 314

9.19 Classroom Example – Subsonic Military Aircraft (Advanced Jet Trainer) 315

9.19.1 AJT Specifications 317

9.19.2 CAS Variant Specifications 318

9.19.3 Weights 319

9.19.4 AJT Details 319

9.20 Classroom Example – Turboprop Trainer 319

9.20.1 TPT Specification 320

9.20.2 TPT Details 321

9.20.3 Component Parasite Drag Estimation 322

9.21 Classroom Example – Supersonic Military Aircraft 325

9.21.1 Geometric and Performance Data for the Vigilante RA‐C5 Aircraft 325

9.21.2 Computation of Wetted Areas, Re and Basic C F 326

9.21.3 Computation of 3D and Other Effects to Estimate Component C Dpmin 327

9.21.4 Summary of Parasite Drag 329

Estimation 329

9.21.6 Induced Drag 330

9.21.7 Supersonic Drag Estimation 330

9.21.8 Total Aircraft Drag 332

9.22 Drag Comparison 332

9.23 Some Concluding Remarks and Reference Figures 334

References 338

10 Fundamentals of Mission Profile, Drag Polar and Aeroplane Grid 339

10.1 Overview 339

10.2 Introduction 340

10.2.1 Evolution in Aircraft Performance Capabilities 341

10.2.2 Levels of Aircraft Performance Analyses 342

10.3 Civil Aircraft Mission (Payload–Range) 342

10.3.1 Civil Aircraft Classification and Mission Segments 344

10.4 Military Aircraft Mission 345

10.4.1 Military Aircraft Performance Segments 347

10.5 Aircraft Flight Envelope 349

10.6 Understanding Drag Polar 351

10.6.1 Actual Drag Polar 351

10.6.2 Parabolic Drag Polar 351

10.6.3 Comparison between Actual and Parabolic Drag Polar 352

10.7 Properties of Parabolic Drag Polar 354

10.7.1 The Maximum and Minimum Conditions Applicable to Parabolic Drag Polar 354

10.7.2 Propeller‐Driven Aircraft 359

10.8 Classwork Examples of Parabolic Drag Polar 363

10.8.1 Bizjet Market Specifications 363

10.8.2 Turboprop Trainer Specifications 363

10.8.3 Advanced Jet Trainer Specifications 365

10.8.4 Comparison of Drag Polars 366

10.9 Bizjet Actual Drag Polar 366

10.9.1 Comparing Actual with Parabolic Drag Polar 367

10.9.2 (Lift/Drag) and (Mach × Lift/Drag) Ratios 368

10.9.3 Velocity at Minimum (D/V) 369

10.9.4 (Lift/Drag) max , C L @ (L/D)max and V Dmin 369

10.9.5 Turboprop Trainer (TPT) Example – Parabolic Drag Polar 370

10.9.6 TPT (Lift/Drag) max , C L@(L/D)max and V Dmin 370

10.9.7 TPT (ESHP) min_reqd and V Pmin 371

10.9.8 Summary for TPT 372

10.10 Aircraft and Engine Grid 372

10.10.1 Aircraft and Engine Grid (Jet Aircraft) 373

10.10.2 Classwork Example – Bizjet Aircraft and Engine Grid 374

10.10.3 Aircraft and Engine Grid (Turboprop Trainer) 376

References 378

11 Takeoff and Landing 379

11.1 Overview 379

11.2 Introduction 380

11.3 Airfield Definitions 380

11.3.1 Stopway (SWY) and Clearway (CWY) 381

11.3.2 Available Airfield Definitions 382

11.3.3 Actual Field Length Definitions 383

11.4 Generalized Takeoff Equations of Motion 384

11.4.1 Ground Run Distance 386

11.4.2 Time Taken for the Ground Run S G 388

11.4.3 Flare Distance and Time Taken from V R to V 2 388

11.4.4 Ground Effect 389

11.5 Friction – Wheel Rolling and Braking Friction Coefficients 389

11.6 Civil Transport Aircraft Takeoff 391

11.6.1 Civil Aircraft Takeoff Segments 391

11.6.2 Balanced Field Length (BFL) – Civil Aircraft 395

11.6.3 Flare to 35 ft Height (Average Speed Method) 396

11.7 Worked Example – Bizjet 396

11.7.1 All‐Engine Takeoff 398

11.7.2 Flare from V R to V 2 398

11.7.3 Balanced Field Takeoff – One Engine Inoperative 399

11.8 Takeoff Presentation 404

11.8.1 Weight, Altitude and Temperature Limits 405

11.9 Military Aircraft Takeoff 405

11.10 Checking Takeoff Field Length (AJT)406 11.10.1 AJT Aircraft and Aerodynamic Data 406

11.10.2 Takeoff with 8° Flap 408

11.11 Civil Transport Aircraft Landing 409

11.11.1 Airfield Definitions 409

11.11.2 Landing Performance Equations 412

11.11.3 Landing Field Length for the Bizjet 414

11.11.4 Landing Field Length for the AJT 416

11.12 Landing Presentation 417

11.13 Approach Climb and Landing Climb 418

11.14 Fuel Jettisoning 418

References 418

12 Climb and Descent Performance 419

12.1 Overview 419

12.2 Introduction 420

12.2.1 Cabin Pressurization 421

12.2.2 Aircraft Ceiling 421

12.3 Climb Performance 422

12.3.1 Climb Performance Equations of Motion 423

12.3.2 Accelerated Climb 423

12.3.3 Constant EAS Climb 425

12.3.4 Constant Mach Climb 427

12.3.5 Unaccelerated Climb 428

12.4 Other Ways to Climb (Point Performance) – Civil Aircraft 428

12.4.1 Maximum Rate of Climb and Maximum Climb Gradient 428

12.4.2 Steepest Climb 432

12.4.3 Economic Climb at Constant EAS 433

12.4.4 Discussion on Climb Performance 434

12.5 Classwork Example – Climb Performance (Bizjet) 435

12.5.1 Takeoff Segments Climb Performance (Bizjet) 435

12.5.2 En‐Route Climb Performance (Bizjet) 439

12.5.3 Bizjet Climb Schedule 440

12.6 Hodograph Plot 440

12.6.1 Aircraft Ceiling 443

12.7 Worked Example – Bizjet 443

12.7.1 Bizjet Climb Rate at Normal Climb Speed Schedule 443

12.7.2 Rate of Climb Performance versus Altitude 444

12.7.3 Bizjet Ceiling 444

12.8 Integrated Climb Performance – Computational Methodology 444

12.8.1 Worked Example – Initial En‐Route Rate of Climb (Bizjet) 446

12.8.2 Integrated Climb Performance (Bizjet) 447

12.8.3 Turboprop Trainer Aircraft (TPT) 447

12.9 Specific Excess Power (SEP) – High‐Energy Climb 447

12.9.1 Specific Excess Power Characteristics 450

12.9.2 Worked Example of SEP Characteristics (Bizjet) 450

12.9.3 Example of AJT 453

12.9.4 Supersonic Aircraft 453

12.10 Descent Performance 454

12.10.1 Glide 457

12.10.2 Descent Properties 458

12.10.3 Selection of Descent Speed 458

12.11 Worked Example – Descent Performance (Bizjet) 459

12.11.1 Limitation of Maximum Descent Rate 460

References 462

13 Cruise Performance and Endurance 463

13.1 Overview 463

13.2 Introduction 464

13.2.1 Definitions 465

13.3 Equations of Motion for the Cruise Segment 466

13.4 Cruise Equations 466

13.4.1 Propeller‐Driven Aircraft Cruise Equations 467

13.4.2 Jet Engine Aircraft Cruise Equations 469

13.5 Specific Range 470

13.6 Worked Example (Bizjet) 471

13.6.1 Aircraft and Engine Grid at Cruise Rating 471

13.6.2 Specific Range Using Actual Drag Polar 471

13.6.3 Specific Range and Range Factor 473

13.7 Endurance Equations 478

13.7.1 Propeller‐Driven (Turboprop) Aircraft 479

13.7.2 Turbofan Powered Aircraft 480

13.8 Options for Cruise Segment (Turbofan Only) 481

13.9 Initial Maximum Cruise Speed (Bizjet) 487

13.10 Worked Example of AJT – Military Aircraft 488

13.10.1 To Compute the AJT Fuel Requirement 488

13.10.2 To Check Maximum Speed 488

References 489

14 Aircraft Mission Profile 491

14.1 Overview 491

14.2 Introduction 492

14.3 Payload‐Range Capability 493

14.3.1 Reserve Fuel 493

14.4 The Bizjet Payload‐Range Capability 495

14.4.1 Long‐Range Cruise (LRC) at Constant Altitude 496

14.4.2 High‐Speed Cruise (HSC) at Constant Altitude and Speed 500

14.4.3 Discussion on Cruise Segment 501

14.5 Endurance (Bizjet) 502

14.6 Effect of Wind on Aircraft Mission Performance 502

14.7 Engine Inoperative Situation at Climb and Cruise – Drift‐Down Procedure 503

14.7.1 Engine Inoperative Situation at Climb 503

14.7.2 Engine Inoperative Situation at Cruise (Figure 14.5)504 14.7.3 Point of No‐Return and Equal Time Point 505

14.7.4 Engine Data 505

14.7.5 Drift‐Down in Cruise 505

14.8 Military Missions 506

14.8.1 Military Training Mission Profile – Advanced Jet Trainer (AJT) 506

14.9 Flight Planning by the Operators 507

References 508

15 Manoeuvre Performance 509

15.1 Overview 509

15.2 Introduction 509

15.3 Aircraft Turn 510

15.3.1 In Horizontal (Yaw) Plane – Sustained Coordinated Turn 510

15.3.2 Maximum Conditions for Turn in Horizontal Plane 516

15.3.3 Minimum Radius of Turn in Horizontal Plane 517

15.3.4 Turning in Vertical (Pitch) Plane 517

15.3.5 In Pitch‐Yaw Plane – Climbing Turn in Helical Path 519

15.4 Classwork Example – AJT 520

15.5 Aerobatics Manoeuvre 522

15.5.1 Lazy‐8 in Horizontal Plane 523

15.5.2 Chandelle 524

15.5.3 Slow Roll 524

15.5.4 Hesitation Roll 524

15.5.5 Barrel Roll 525

15.5.6 Loop in Vertical Plane 525

15.5.7 Immelmann – Roll at the Top in the Vertical Plane 526

15.5.8 Stall Turn in Vertical Plane 527

15.5.9 Cuban‐Eight in Vertical Plane 527

15.5.10 Pugachev’s Cobra Movement 528

15.6 Combat Manoeuvre 528

15.6.1 Basic Fighter Manoeuvre 528

15.7 Discussion on Turn 530

References 531

16 Aircraft Sizing and Engine Matching 533

16.1 Overview 533

16.2 Introduction 534

16.3 Theory 535

16.3.1 Sizing for Takeoff Field Length – Two Engines 536

16.3.2 Sizing for the Initial Rate of Climb (All Engines Operating) 539

16.3.3 Sizing to Meet Initial Cruise 540

16.3.4 Sizing for Landing Distance 540

16.4 Coursework Exercises: Civil Aircraft Design (Bizjet) 541

16.4.1 Takeoff 541

16.4.2 Initial Climb 542

16.4.3 Cruise 542

16.4.4 Landing 543

16.5 Sizing Analysis: Civil Aircraft (Bizjet) 543

16.5.1 Variants in the Family of Aircraft Design 544

16.5.2 Example: Civil Aircraft 545

16.6 Classroom Exercise – Military Aircraft (AJT) 546

16.6.1 Takeoff 546

16.6.2 Initial Climb 546

16.6.3 Cruise 547

16.6.4 Landing 548

16.6.5 Sizing for Turn Requirement of 4 g at Sea‐Level 548

16.7 Sizing Analysis – Military Aircraft 551

16.7.1 Single Seat Variants 552

16.8 Aircraft Sizing Studies and Sensitivity Analyses 553

16.8.1 Civil Aircraft Sizing Studies 553

16.8.2 Military Aircraft Sizing Studies 554

16.9 Discussion 554

16.9.1 The AJT 557

References 558

17 Operating Costs 559

17.1 Overview 559

17.2 Introduction 560

17.3 Aircraft Cost and Operational Cost 561

17.3.1 Manufacturing Cost 563

17.3.2 Operating Cost 565

17.4 Aircraft Direct Operating Cost (DOC) 567

17.4.1 Formulation to Estimate DOC 569

17.4.2 Worked Example of DOC – Bizjet 571

17.5 Aircraft Performance Management (APM) 574

17.5.1 Methodology 576

17.5.2 Discussion – the Broader Issues 577

References 577

18 Miscellaneous Considerations 579

18.1 Overview 579

18.2 Introduction 579

18.3 History of the FAA 580

18.3.1 Code of Federal Regulations 582

18.3.2 The Role of Regulation 582

18.4 Flight Test 583

18.5 Contribution of the Ground Effect on Takeoff 585

18.6 Flying in Adverse Environments 586

18.6.1 Adverse Environment as Loss of Visibility 586

18.6.2 Adverse Environment Due to Aerodynamic and Stability/Control Degradation 587

18.7 Bird Strikes 590

18.8 Military Aircraft Flying Hazards and Survivability 591

18.9 Relevant Civil Aircraft Statistics 591

18.9.1 Maximum Takeoff Mass versus Operational Empty Mass 591

18.9.2 MTOM versus Fuel Load, M f 592

18.9.3 MTOM versus Wing Area, S W 593

18.9.4 MTOM versus Engine Power 594

18.9.5 Empennage Area versus Wing Area 595

18.9.6 Wing Loading versus Aircraft Span 597

18.10 Extended Twin‐Engine Operation (ETOP) 597

18.11 Flight and Human Physiology 598

References 599

Appendices Appendix A Conversions 601

Appendix B International Standard Atmosphere Table 605

Appendix C Fundamental Equations 609

Appendix D Airbus 320 Class Case Study 615

Appendix E Problem Sets 627

Appendix F Aerofoil Data 647

Index 655