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Edible Wild Plants of Eastern North America
By Merritt Lyndon Fernald, Alfred Charles Kinsey Dover Publications, Inc.
Copyright © 1986 President and Fellows of Harvard College
All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-0-486-14447-4
CHAPTER 1
EDIBLE WILD PLANTS OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO USES
IN THIS CHAPTER the plants are grouped into different secsions according to their uses, special emphasis being given some of the more important species, the unimportant being merely enumerated with page-references to the more detailed discussion in Chapter III. The more important are printed in capitals.
1. PURÉES AND SOUPS
PURÉES
Purées consist largely of boiled green vegetable mashed through a sieve or strainer, sometimes thickened with a little flour or corn-starch mixed with cold water until smooth. A purée is seasoned with salt and pepper to taste, and in the case of more acid plants sugar is necessary. After the purée is thoroughly cooked scalded milk may be added if desired. The following wild plants are used for purées:
CAT-TAIL (young flowering spike), p. 82
Cat-brier (young leaves and sprouts), p. 140
MOUNTAIN-SORREL (young leaves and stems), p. 167
DOCKS (leaves), p. 169
SORRELS (leaves), p. 171
BLADDER-CAMPION (young leaves), p. 193
Fireweed (young shoots), p. 279
Ilonewort (leaves), p. 287
Elder (pith), p. 349
Of these the purees made from the Cat-tail, Cat-brier, Mountain-Sorrel, Docks, Sorrels, and Bladder-Campion can be recommended by the writers; the others they have not tried. The Mountain-Sorrel, Sorrel and some of the Docks are acid and need a little sugar. Most of the Docks are slightly bitter rather than acid, while the Bladder-Campion has the flavor of green peas with a slight bitterness. The soup from the young flowering spikes of Cat-tail, said to be one of the delicacies of the Pah-Ute Indians, is easy to prepare and, since it proves equally palatable to the white taste, it could be made in early summer by every family throughout the country.
STARCHY OR MUCILAGINOUS SOUPS
These soups are chiefly prepared from starchy substances which, when boiled, form a thickening which adds much nutriment to a soup. The soups of this class can be made from the following plants:
Seaweeds, p. 402
Lichens, p. 406
Arbor Vitae (pith of young twigs), p. 81
MANNA-GRASS (seeds), p. 93
WILD RICE (seeds), p. 102
DAY-LILIES (buds and flowers), p. 130
WALNUTS (meats), p. 149
HICKORY-NUTS (meats), p. 150
CHESTNUTS (meats), p. 158
COW-LILY (seeds), p. 197
SASSAFRAS (pith and young shoots or powdered leaves), p. 219
MALLOW (seeds), p. 274
Violet (rootstocks), p. 275
Prickly-Pear (seeds), p. 276
Tobacco-root, p. 351
SUNFLOWER (seeds), p. 357
Burdock (roots), p. 364
Of these the soups thickened with the seeds of Wild Rice, Manna-grass and Cow-Lily have somewhat the quality of the familiar barley soups; while most of the others are thickish, viscid soups, in quality suggesting either gumbo- or potato-soup. The gumbo-soups are prepared from the young or dried and powdered leaves or young pith of Sassafras, from the seeds of Mallows, or from the young rootstocks of some of the purple Violets. The thick soups prepared from powdered nuts and from Sunflower-seeds have been in repute among the American Indians and have been highly praised by the Europeans who have tried them.
FRUIT SOUPS
The fruit soups are prepared much like the conventional tomato soups, either as a thin soup carrying the acid of fruit juices, or as a thick soup, in which case flour or cornstarch is added, first mixed with cold water until thoroughly blended and creamy and thoroughly cooked by itself. The cooked thickening is added to the strained extract obtained by boiling the fruits, seasoned to taste, usually a small amount of sugar added and then, if desired, a small amount of scalded milk. Practically any of our juicy or more acid fruits may be used this way, but the sweeter, more highly flavored, or insipid fruits are hardly to be recommended. Among the wild fruits from which a palatable soup can be prepared are
RASPBERRIES, p. 236
BLACKBERRIES, p. 236
DEWBERRIES, p. 237
PLUMS, p. 239
CHERRIES, p. 240
ELDERBERRIES, p. 349
2. STARCHY OR ROOT-VEGETABLES, CEREALS, NUTS AND BREADSTUFFS
A large number of wild plants of eastern America supply farinaceous food or nutritious roots. These may appropriately be grouped according to their uses into 1) those which are used like potatoes or parsnips as cooked vegetables; 2) a few used as nuts; 3) a limited number used as cooked cereals or breakfast foods; 4) a long list of possible breadstuffs.
COOKED STARCHY OR ROOT-VEGETABLES
The list of possible cooked vegetables of this class is a long one:
Lichens, p. 406
Cat-tail (bases), p. 82 Bur-reed (tubers), p. 85
Pondweeds (rootstocks and tubers), p. 85
ARROW-HEADS (tubers), p. 86
Mud-Plantain (rootstocks), p. 89
Flowering-Rush (rootstocks), p. 89
Reed (rootstocks), p. 94
Water-Millet (young root-stocks), p. 101
CHUFA (tubers), p. 107
Nut-Grass (tubers), p. 110
Arrow-Arum (roots and seeds), p. 113
Golden-club (roots and seeds), p. 119
Erect Day-flower (roots), p. 124
Bellwort (roots), p. 126
Lilies (bulbs), p. 132
Day-Lily (thick roots), p. 130
Adder's-tongue Lily (bulbs), p. 132
Star-of-Bethlehem (bulbs) ?, p. 133
False Spikenard (rootstocks), p. 135
CINNAMON-VINE, p. 143
Golden Canna ?, p. 145
CHESTNUTS, p. 158
Slippery Elm (inner bark), p. 161
ALPINE BISTORT (rootstocks), p. 174
SPRING-BEAUTY (roots), p. 197
COW-LILY (rootstocks and seeds), p. 197
White Water-Lily (rootstocks and seeds), p. 199
WATER-CHINQUAPIN (root-stocks and seeds), p. 200
Water-shield (rootstocks), p. 202
Bulbous Crowfoot (bulbs), p. 202
Silverweed (roots), p. 233
PRAIRIE-TURNIP (roots), p. 246
Wild Licorice (roots), p. 248
LICORICE-ROOT (roots), p. 249
BEACH-PEAS (young peas), p. 251
Tuberous Vetch (tubers), p. 251
GROUNDNUT, Apios (roots), p. 252
HOG-PEANUT (underground seeds), p. 256
Prickly-Pear (stem), p. 276
EVENING-PRIMROSE (roots), p. 280
Water-Chestnuts, p. 281
Indian Spikenard (roots), p. 282
Dwarf Ginseng (roots), p. 284
Harbinger-of-Spring (roots), p. 287
Honewort (roots), p. 287
CARAWAY (roots), p. 290
Water-Parsnip, Sium (roots), p. 291
WILD PARSNIP (roots), p. 297
COW-PARSNIP (roots), p. 297
Wild Carrot (roots), p. 301
Man-of-the-Earth (roots), p. 326
Woundwort (rootstocks and tubers), p. 331
BUGLEWEED (tubers), p. 332
Tobacco-root, p. 351
Bellflower, Campanula rapunculoides (roots), p. 353
JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE (tubers), p. 357
Burdock (roots), p. 364
YELLOW GOAT'S-BEARD (roots), p.371
WILD SALSIFY (roots), p. 371
It is obvious that many of these plants are trivial and by the ordinary person will be classed only as emergency-foods; but such roots or tubers as those of the Spring-beauty, Groundnut, Evening-Primrose, Caraway, Bugleweed and Jerusalem Artichoke are so abundant where they occur as already to have many users. The root of Licorice-root, Hedysarum alpinum or H. boreale, is very large, and it might become of some importance in the regions of Labrador, Newfoundland, Canada and Maine where it abounds.
Certain plants which supply abundant starchy material or inulin and which are eaten by the Indians are so unpalatable to the European taste that, until some method of preparation is found by which their undesirable qualities may be removed, they are likely to be ignored. This group includes the Arrow-Arum, Golden-club and Prickly-Pear.
Among the edible seeds the Chestnut, Cow-Lily, and Beach-Pea are most important and, where abundant, the Hog-Peanut, although the latter is rarely found in sufficient quantity to supply a large company.
NUTS AND LARGE SEEDS
The wild nuts are mostly well known, although two or three species which supply nuts or nut-like roots are less familiar. The nuts and edible large seeds of eastern America include
Pine-seeds, p. 77
PICKEREL-WEED-SEEDS, p. 125
WALNUTS, p. 148
BUTTERNUTS, p. 148
HICKORY-NUTS, pp. 148-150
PECANS, p. 150
HAZELNUTS, p. 151
Hornbeam-nuts, p. 152
BEECHNUTS, p. 152
CHESTNUTS, p. 158
CHINQUAPINS, p. 159
Sweet Acorns, p. 159
Hemp, p. 162
Bastard Toadflax (fruits), p. 166
ALPINE BISTORT (roots), p. 174
Cow-Lily (seeds), p. 197
Water-Chinquapin (seeds), p. 200
Kentucky Coffee-tree (seeds), p. 242
Peanut (seed), p. 250
Bladder-nut (seeds), p. 266
Dwarf Ginseng (roots), p. 284
Except that they have uses which are often unfamiliar, the more important nuts, as already said, are well known and consequently need little discussion. The detailed notes under Walnuts, Hickory-nuts, Beechnuts and Chestnuts indicate how universal has been their use as cooked vegetables and as sources of soups, oils and, especially, breadstuffs. Some, like the Pine-seeds or the nuts of Bastard Toadflax and the roots of Dwarf Ginseng, occur in such limited quantities or are so difficult to procure that they are likely to be used only as occasional relishes or nibbles; and the nuts of the Hornbeams are so small as to be tempting only in time of great need; but in late summer and autumn Pickerel-weed supplies an abundance of palatable and nutritious nutty seeds, enough to supply every tramper in the eastern states.
The use of nuts at the present time is not so general as it should be but the following extract from old Dr. Culpepper indicates that in the 18th century, also, nuts were not generally appreciated.
"And if this be true, as it is, then why should the Vulgar so familiary affirm, That eating Nuts causeth shortness of Breath, than which nothing is falser? For, how can that which strengthens the Lungs, cause shortness of Breath? I confess the Opinion is far elder than I am; I knew Tradition was a Friend to Errors before, but never that he was the Father of Slanders: or are Mens Tongues so given to slandering one another, that they must slander Nuts too, to keep their Tongues in use?..... And thus I have made an Apology for Nuts, which cannot speak for themselves."
BREAKFAST CEREALS
Only a few species of our wild plants furnish seeds of such quality or in sufficient quantity to supply breakfast foods. In fact, only the following have been specially recommended.
Arrow-grass, p. 86
Cane, p. 91
Reed, p. 94
WILD RICE, p. 102
Cow-Lily, p. 197
Water-Chinquapin, p. 200
Of these, Arrow-grass, on account of the peculiar, oily flavor of its seeds is not likely to be palatable to the European taste. Some of the larger-seeded grasses besides Wild Rice would doubtless supply a breakfast food, if they could be secured in sufficient quantity.
BREADSTUFFS
An amazing number of plants have been drawn upon by primitive peoples to supply breadstuffs, and a surprising diversity in the part of the plant used is exhibited in the list of possible breadstuffs in eastern America. The important requirement seems to be merely a large amount of nutritive material more or less farinaceous, flavor being secondary. The breads made by primitive races were often quite unpalatable to the whites and even the breads made in northern Europe in times of famine are more nutritious than attractive. Many of the breadstuffs, however, are not merely nutritious and wholesome, but, when properly prepared, are often delicious and supply breads, muffins and cakes which rival those made from the cultivated cereals. The wild breadstuffs of eastern America are the following:
Lichens, p. 406
Pine (inner bark), p. 77
Hemlock (inner bark), p. 80
CAT-TAIL (pollen), p. 82
Flowering-Rush (rootstock and tubers), p. 89
Arrow-grass (seeds), p. 86
Cane (grains), p. 91
Manna-grass (grains), p. 93
Reed (young stems and grains), p. 94
STRAND-WHEAT (grains), p. 95
Witch-grass (rootstocks), p. 95
Drop-seed Grass (grains), p. 96
Mountain-Rice (grains), p. 97
Slough-grass (grains), p. 98
Crowfoot-grass (grains), p. 98
Goose-grass (grains), p. 100
Canary-grass (grains), p. 100
WILD RICE (grains), p. 102
Crab-grass (grains), p. 103
MILLET (grains), p. 104
Barnyard-grass (grains), p. 104
Foxtail-grass (grains), p. 105
Sandbur (grains), p. 106
Job's-tears (grains), p. 107
Chufa (tubers), p. 107
Nut-Grass (tubers), p. 110
Tule (rootstock, pollen, seeds), p. 110
JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT (roots), p. 111
Green Dragon (roots), p. 113
Arrow-Arum (roots and seeds), p. 113
Wild Calla (rootstocks), p. 116
Skunk-Cabbage (roots and seeds), p. 117
Golden-club (roots and seeds), p. 119
PICKEREL-WEED (fruits), p. 125
Solomon's-seal (rootstocks), p. 136
Cat-brier (rootstocks), p. 140
WALNUTS, p. 148
BUTTERNUTS, p. 148
HICKORY-NUTS, pp. 148-150
PECANS, p. 150
HAZELNUTS, p. 151
Birch (inner bark), p. 152
CHESTNUTS, p. 158
BEECHNUTS (and inner bark), p. 154
ACORNS, p. 159
Dock (seeds), p. 169
Knotgrass (seeds), p. 173
Black Bindweed (seeds), p. 174
Climbing False Buckwheat (seeds), p. 174
PIGWEED (seeds), p. 177
Summer-Cypress (seeds), p. 182
AMARANTH (seeds), p. 184
Corn-Spurrey (seeds), p. 188
Purslane (seeds), p. 195
Cow-Lily (seeds), p. 197
WATER-CHINQUAPIN (seeds), p. 200
Shepherd's-purse (seeds), p. 213
Mountain-Ash (berries), p. 230
Service-berries, p. 230
Strawberries, p. 232
Cherry (powdered stones), p. 241
Red-bud (flowers), p. 245
CLOVER (heads and seeds), p. 246
Peanut (seed), p. 250
Kudzu-vine (roots), p. 258
Maple (inner bark), p. 266
Horse-Chestnut (seeds), p. 270
Buckeye (nuts), p. 270
Water-Chestnuts, p. 281
Persimmon (fruits), p. 320
Buckbean (rootstocks), p. 323
Blue Vervain (seeds), p. 328
ELDER (flowers), p. 349
Tobacco-root, p. 351
Cocklebur (seeds), p. 356
SUNFLOWER (seeds), p. 357
Tarweed (seeds), p. 361
As already said, many of these breadstuffs are to be considered as emergency-foods and only as last resorts in time of famine were they depended upon by primitive peoples or those remote from abundant crops; for instance, the rootstocks of Buckbean which have furnished a missen (famine)-bread in Scandinavia, described as nutritious but bitter and disagreeable. Similarly, many members of the Arum family, although containing abundant starchy material, also have such a fiercely puckering, peppery principle that their roots may be used only after prolonged drying and even then there will often be left some of the peppery quality.
Some of the other plants supply breadstuff of considerable importance. For instance, the juicy inner bark of the Scotch Pine, stripped off in early summer and dried, has long been recognized in Scotland and in Scandinavia as a source of nutritive flour in times of scarcity of wheat; and the sappy inner bark of our Sugar-Maple was similarly used by our American Indians and it certainly suggests the possibility of furnishing a palatable breadstuff. In this connection it is well to remember the statement, attributed to the late Dr. Harvey Wiley, that "Sawdust is fine board."
Bread and cake made from flour prepared from nuts is so familiar in these days of vegetarian recipes as to need no special introduction, but it is noteworthy that the American Indians were much more alive to the desirability and the highly nutritive qualities of these breads than are the whites. The use of acorns as a source of bread was so general among the Indians, particularly of the South-west, where acorn-bread is described by army surgeons as extremely wholesome and fattening, that it is surprising that few efforts have been made by the whites to use the abundant crop of acorns that annually goes to waste. The acorns of the White Oaks are sweet and only slightly bitter and, when properly prepared by leaching out the tannin, furnish a flour from which the most delicious cake and bread may be prepared.
Only a few of the smaller seeds occur in sufficient quantity for practical use in bread-making, but from such common weeds of cultivated fields and barnyards as the Pigweeds and Amaranths a remarkable quantity of seeds can be readily rattled out. Bread prepared from the ground seeds of these plants is thoroughly palatable and apparently wholesome, although with as characteristic a flavor as that of barley and some other cereals to which the American taste was forced during the last war to accustom itself. The Indians even prepared breads from some of the stone-fruits and dried berries, grinding such fruits as dried persimmons, stones and all!
The ubiquitous Elder is the source of delicious rolls and muffins. The fluffy cream-white corollas and buds shaken or pulled off the broad clusters and used on the 50-50 principle with white flour yield muffins which are marvelously light and of delicate flavor. This "flour" can be stored for winter use by rattling off the corollas and drying them rapidly; then storing in tight receptacles.
3. COOKED GREEN VEGETABLES
The wild plants which can be used as cooked green vegetables are about as numerous as the starchy vegetables or those with inulin. They group rather naturally into (1) those used as potherbs or greens; (2) some served like asparagus, in lengths; and (3) a few prepared like string beans, stewed celery, or other conventional vegetables.
POTHERBS OR "GREENS"
The potherbs or "greens" are more familiar to the layman than any other of our green vegetables; and almost every one is accustomed to the use of one or another of our wild greens, such as Dandelion, Dock, Mustard, or Marsh-Marigold. The prejudice against this group of plants is likely to be much less with those not particularly familiar with wild plants than that against the making of bread from acorns or from the seeds of various wild herbs.
In preparing greens, great pains must be taken to include only the young and tender foliage, since a single tough or old leaf will injure the quality of the entire dish. Particular pains should also be taken in the identification of the species, since, at the stage when most plants are available for greens, flowers and fruits are rarely found and the dangers of confusion are much greater than at other seasons.
(Continues...)
Excerpted from Edible Wild Plants of Eastern North America by Merritt Lyndon Fernald, Alfred Charles Kinsey. Copyright © 1986 President and Fellows of Harvard College. Excerpted by permission of Dover Publications, Inc..
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