Bladder Cancer: Risk Factors, Emerging Treatment Strategies and Challenges

Bladder cancer is the fifth most common form of cancer worldwide and is mainly prevalent in developed countries. It is thought to arise through two distinct pathways: the noninvasive and the invasive. The noninvasive pathway gives rise to a superficial papillary carcinoma that is characterized by activating mutations in oncogenes such as H-ras, FGFR3 and PI3K. This pathway is rarely lethal as superficial papillary carcinomas can be readily removed through transurethral resection. However, 1...