Joint Operating Agreements: A Comparison Between the IOC and NOC Perspectives, Second Edition

Historically, oil and gas upstream activities were largely open to foreign investment. However, nationalisation in recent decades has concentrated the vast majority of natural resources in the hands of national oil companies (NOCs). Therefore, independent oil companies (IOCs) are increasingly likely to deal with NOCs as a partner.

The joint operating agreement (JOA) was intended as a private document that regulates relationships between private investors. Recent developments under several lo...